owl:sameAs

The first example linked by the owl:sameAs is the pair Address (http://sparql.cwrc.ca/ontologies/cwrc#Address) and Postal Address (http://schema.org/PostalAddress). For the term Address Oxford Dictionary provides multiple definitions:

1. Guidance.

2. An act or instance of addressing someone.

69 3. The action of directing or dispatching.

4. An introductory inscription dedicating a literary work to a specified person, god, etc.; a dedication.

5. A manner or style of speaking or writing; the manner a person employs in conversation or writing; language.

6. The particulars of the place where a person lives or an organization is situated, typically consisting of a number, street name, the name of a town or district, and often a postal code; these particulars considered as a location where a person or organization can be contacted by post. [64]

The Ontology description of the concepts states that Address is a mailing or street address, which relates to the 6th Oxford definition. That means that the rest of the meanings are not taken into account by the ontology. Cambridge Dictionary gives only two definitions:

one in the category of home details - the number of the house, name of the road, and name of the town where a person lives or works, and where letters can be sent; a place where someone lives. And the second definition belongs to the category of computes - a series of letters and symbols that tell you where to find something on the internet or show where an email is sent to the place where a piece of information is stored in a computer's memory. [65] The Ontology definition covers the first definition of the Cambridge Dictionary.

The second concept from the pair is Postal Address. In Oxford Dictionary the definition of the term Postal Address is equal to the 6th Oxford definition of the term address. Cambridge Dictionary does not provide any definition for the term Postal Address. The Ontology definition states that Postal Address is the mailing address. Additionally, it also includes the definition for the term Address, which is a physical and mailing address of the item.

The difference between the two concepts is the information that postal address is only mailing address and address includes both physical and mail. In case physical address and mailing address should be kept separated, the concepts also should be kept separated.

The second example linked by the owl:sameAs is pair Bell (http://w3id.org/charta77/jup/Bell) and Doorbell (http://dbpedia.org/resource/Doorbell). The Oxford English Dictionary gives below three definitions of the term 'Bell':

70 1. A hollow body of cast metal, formed to ring, or emit a clear musical sound, by the sonorous vibration of its entire circumference, when struck by a clapper, hammer, or other appliance. The typical form, found in all large bells (and indicated by the expression bell-shaped), is that of an inverted deep cup with a recurving brim, which is struck by a ‘clapper’ or ‘tongue,’ usually suspended from the centre of the interior.

2. A bell rung to tell the hours; the bell of a clock; whence the obsolete phrases of the bell, on the bell, at the bell = o'clock.

3. The larger kinds are used for giving signals of various import (time, danger, etc.) to the inhabitants of a town or district, and especially in connection with public worship (cf. chime n.1); the smaller kinds are used for similar purposes in a house (e.g. doorbell, dinner-bell, electric-bell).[64]

Cambridge Dictionary provides only two definitions of the term 'Bell': the first one is an electrical device that makes a ringing sound when you press a button (also doorbell).

The second one is a hollow metal object shaped like a cup that makes a ringing sound when hit by something hard, especially a clapper.[65]

The Ontology description includes all descriptions that it is possible to find in both dictionaries: A bell is a directly struck idiophone percussion instrument. Most bells have the shape of a hollow cup that when struck vibrates in a single strong strike tone, with its sides forming an efficient resonator. The strike may be made by an internal "clapper" or

"uvula", an external hammer, or—in small bells—by a small loose sphere enclosed within the body of the bell (jingle bell). Bells are usually cast from bell metal (a type of bronze) for its resonant properties but can also be made from other hard materials. This depends on the function. Some small bells such as ornamental bells or cowbells can be made from cast or pressed metal, glass or ceramic, but large bells such as a church, clock and tower bells are normally cast from bell metal. Bells intended to be heard over a wide area can range from a single bell hung in a turret or bell-gable, to a musical ensemble such as an English ring of bells, a carillon or a Russian zvon which are tuned to a common scale and installed in a bell tower. Many public or institutional buildings house bells, most commonly as clock bells to sound the hours and quarters. Historically, bells have been associated with religious rites, and are still used to call communities together for religious services.

71 Later, bells were made to commemorate important events or people and have been associated with the concepts of peace and freedom.

The second concept from the pair is Doorbell. In Oxford Dictionary the definition of the term Doorbell relates to the term Bell in ecclesiastical use, as bearing-bell, houseling-bell, lich-houseling-bell, sacring-houseling-bell, sanctus-houseling-bell, or saunce-bell. This meaning corresponds with the third Oxford definition of the term Bell. Cambridge also provides one definition - a bell, operated by a button on or next to the door of a house, that you push to tell the people inside that you are there. [65] This meaning corresponds with the second Cambridge definition of the term Bell.

The Ontology description for the concept 'doorbell' correlates with the definitions from Cambridge and Oxford dictionaries - A doorbell is a signaling device typically placed near a door to a building's entrance. When a visitor presses a button the bell rings inside the building, alerting the occupant to the presence of the visitor. Although the first doorbells were mechanical, activated by pulling a cord connected to a bell, modern doorbells are electric, operated by a pushbutton switch. Modern doorbells often incorporate intercoms and miniature video cameras to increase security.

The difference between the two concepts is large the Doorbell is only one type of Bell.

The term Bell is wider and includes more meanings than the term Doorbell. In case of merging and using the concept Bell, the information about the exact type of the Bell - Doorbell will be lost.

The third example linked by the owl:sameAs is pair Tourist Guide (http://w3id.org/charta77/jup/TouristGuide) and Tour Guide (http://dbpedia.org/resource/Tour_guide). The Oxford English Dictionary terms Tour guide and Tourist Guide are linked as synonyms and have the same definition: tourist guide = tour guide at tour; a guidebook which introduces tourists to a region or locality. [64] Cambridge Dictionary does not have a definition for Tourist Guide, but it provides three definitions for the tour guide. First one - guide as a book, that gives you the most important information about a particular subject. The second one - guide as help. Something that helps you form an opinion or make a decision about something else. The third one - guide as a person, whose job is showing a place or a particular route to visitors.[65]

72 In Ontology the description is a tour guide (U.S.) or a tourist guide (European) is a person who provides assistance, information on cultural, historical and contemporary heritage to people on organized sightseeing and individual clients at educational establishments, religious and historical sites such as; museums, and at various venues of tourist attraction resorts. In the Ontology description, it is mentioned that tour guide is used mainly in the U.S., and tourist guide is used mainly in Europe. However, there is no confirmation neither in Oxford Dictionary nor Cambridge.

Based on additional resources analysis there is no information that could be lost in case of merging the concepts of tour guide and tourist guide.

8.2.2 skos:exactMatch

The first example linked by the skos:exactMatch is pair Lift (https://w3id.org/timebank#Lift) and Elevator (http://dbpedia.org/resource/Elevator) For the term Elevator Oxford Dictionary provides below three definitions:

1. A machine used for raising corn or flour to an upper storey.

2. chiefly North American. A lift, hoist, ascending chamber.

3. One who or that which elevates. [64]

The Oxford definition for the term lift shows equivalence with the term elevator - An apparatus for raising or lowering persons or things from one floor or level to another; an ascending chamber or compartment; = elevator n. 3d. Also, the well or vertical opening in which the apparatus works [64].

Cambridge Dictionary links both terms and provides only one definition for both. Lift noun (CARRYING DEVICE) (US elevator) - a device like a box that moves up and down, carrying people or goods from one floor of a building to another or taking people up and down underground in a mine. [65]

The Ontology description links both terms into one definition. An elevator (North American English) or lift (Commonwealth English) is a type of cable-assisted, hydraulic cylinder-assisted, or roller-track assisted machine that vertically transports people or freight between floors, levels, or decks of a building, vessel, or other structure. They are typically powered by electric motors that drive traction cables and counterweight systems such as a

73 hoist, although some pump hydraulic fluid to raise a cylindrical piston like a jack. In agriculture and manufacturing, an elevator is any type of conveyor device used to lift materials in a continuous stream into bins or silos. Several types exist, such as the chain and bucket elevator, grain auger screw conveyor using the principle of Archimedes' screw, or the chain and paddles or forks of hay elevators. Languages other than English, such as Japanese, may refer to elevators by loanwords based on either elevator or lift. Due to wheelchair access laws, elevators are often a legal requirement in new multistory buildings, especially where wheelchair ramps are not possible. Some elevators can also travel horizontally in addition to the usual vertical motion.

The difference between the two concepts is the territory of usage. An elevator is used in North American English and a lift is used in Commonwealth English. If the territory of usage is not relevant for the ontology, terms can be merged into one. The information to be lost is the territory of usage.

8.2.3 owl:equivalentClass

The pair Purpose (http://softeng.polito.it/rsctx#Purpose) and Goal (http://www.ontologydesignpatterns.org/ont/dul/DUL.owl#Goal) is the first example linked by the owl:equivalentClass. For the term Purpose Oxford Dictionary provides below three definitions:

1. That which a person sets out to do or attain; an object in view; a determined intention or aim.

2. The reason for which something is done or made, or for which it exists; the result or effect intended or sought; the end to which an object or action is directed; aim.

3. That which forms or ought to form the subject of a discourse; the matter in hand; the point at issue. [64]

Cambridge Dictionary as well gives three definitions for the term Purpose, which are the same as Oxford definitions:

1. purpose noun - why you do something or why something exists

2. purpose noun (REASON) - an intention or aim; a reason for doing something or for allowing something to happen

74 3. purpose noun (RESULT) - an intended result or use [65]

The Ontology (http://softeng.polito.it) does not provide a description for the concept Purpose. The comparison of the pair will be done only based on Dictionaries' definitions.

The second concept is Goal. The Ontology (http://www.ontologydesignpatterns.org) description of the concept is the description of a situation that is desired by an Agent, and usually associated to a Plan that describes how to actually achieve.

In the Oxford dictionary below definitions are given:

1. The finishing point of a race or a marker by which this point is signified; the finish line, the finishing post.

2. An aim or outcome which a person, group, or organization works towards or strives to achieve, the object of a person's ambition or effort. Later also:

(Psychology) an end or result to which a series of actions, choices, events, etc., lead (whether consciously or unconsciously directed), the achievement of which brings reward or satisfaction.

3. In various team sports played with a ball, puck, etc. [64]

The same three definitions are possible to find in Cambridge Dictionary. The first one is a goal in sense of aim - an aim or purpose; the second one is the goal in sense of result - a purpose, or something that you want to achieve; the third one is the goal in sense of sport - a point scored in some sports, such as football and hockey, when a player gets the ball into this area. [65]

The term purpose is broader and deeper than the term goal. A goal is the idea or wish of something that is wanted to be achieved. The two terms are interlinked, and it is difficult to find a difference. The main difference is the matter of time. A goal would have a deadline, which is not applicable in case of purpose. If the matter of time is important for the ontology, the concepts should be kept separate. Otherwise, it is more beneficial to merge them.

The second example linked by the owl:equivalentClass is pair Film (http://dbpedia.org/ontology/Film) and Movie (http://schema.org/Movie). The Ontology does not provide a description for the concepts only that Film is a film and Movie is a movie. The

75 comparison of the pair will be done only based on Dictionaries' definitions. The Oxford English Dictionary gives below three definitions of the term 'Film':

1. A thin layer or sheet of tissue in an animal or plant, or in a product of an animal or plant; a pellicle; a membrane. A fine skin, sheet, or covering forming a thin layer or coating on a surface.

2. Originally: a thin layer of light-sensitive material, typically applied to photographic paper or plates and used to record a photographic image. In later use: a thin flexible strip of celluloid, plastic, etc., coated with light-sensitive emulsion, used in photography and cinematography to record a series of images; a single roll of this material.

3. A representation of a story or event recorded on film or, in later use, in digital form, and shown as moving images in a cinema or (latterly) on television, video, the internet, etc.; a motion picture, a movie. [64]

Same as with the pair lift/elevator the difference between the two concepts is the territory of usage. A movie is used in North American English and lift is used in Commonwealth English. This confirms the Oxford dictionary with definitions of the term movie:

1. In plural (usually with the). The screening of motion pictures in a cinema;

motion pictures as an industry, art form, or type of entertainment.

2. North American. A film theatre, a cinema. [64]

Cambridge Dictionary gives similar definitions for the term movie:

1. movie noun - (the UK usually film) a film shown in a cinema or on television and often telling a story

2. movie noun - (the UK the cinema) - a cinema or group of cinemas [65]

If the territory of usage is not relevant for the ontology, terms can be merged into one.

The information to be lost is the territory of usage.

76 8.2.4 skos:closeMatch

The pair Grant (https://w3id.org/dingo#Grant) and Funding (http://purl.org/cerif/frapo/Funding) is the first example linked by the skos:closeMatch. For the term Grant Oxford Dictionary provides below three definitions:

1. Consent, permission.

2. The action of according (a request, a favour asked for).

3. An authoritative bestowal or conferment of a privilege, right, or possession; a gift or assignment of money, etc. by the act of an administrative body or of a person in control of a fund or the like. [64]

Cambridge Dictionary has only one definition for the term Grant - a sum of money given by the government, a university, or a private organization to another organization or person for a special purpose. The Ontology description (https://w3id.org/dingo) for the concept Grant is the class for grant: a disbursed fund payed to a recipient or beneficiary and the process for it. [65]

There are as well three definitions in the Oxford Dictionary for the term Funding:

1. Finance. Conversion of a floating debt into a more or less permanent debt at a fixed rate of interest.

2. The action or practice of providing money for a particular cause or purpose.

3. Money provided, especially by an organization or government, for a particular cause or purpose. [64]

Cambridge Dictionary has only one definition for the term Funding - money made available for a particular purpose. [65]

The Ontology description (http://purl.org/cerif/frapo/Funding) for the concept 'funding' correlates with the definitions from Cambridge and Oxford dictionaries - An amount of money available to finance some project or activity. However, it is not as detailed as in the dictionaries.

The difference between terms is not relevant to the aim of the ontology. In both cases, the most important meaning is the sum of money available for a particular cause or purpose.

Additionally, the terms are synonyms. Based on that, the concepts of grant and funding can be merged.

77 The second example linked by the skos:closeMatch is pair Repair

(https://w3id.org/timebank#Repair) and Maintenance ( http://dbpedia.org/resource/Maintenance).

The Ontology descriptions view repair as the skill to repair equipment and facilities and maintenance as the skill to help with the maintenance of equipment. The technical meaning of maintenance involves functional checks, servicing, repairing, or replacing of necessary devices, equipment, machinery, building infrastructure, and supporting utilities in industrial, business, and residential installations. The Oxford English Dictionary gives below three definitions of the term 'Repair':

1. The action of repairing a damaged, worn, or faulty object or structure by replacing or fixing parts. Also: the fact or process of keeping something in good condition in this way; maintenance, upkeep.

2. gen. Restoration of a system or other unity to good or proper condition; an instance of this. Also: something repaired in this way.

3. The healing of a wound, injury, etc. {64]

Cambridge Dictionary provides only two definitions of the term 'Repair': the first one is the act of fixing something that is broken or damaged. And the second one is the act of doing something to put something that is broken or damaged back into good condition or to make it work again. [65]

The second concept is Maintenance. The Oxford English Dictionary gives below three definitions:

1. The action of providing oneself, one's family, etc., with the means of subsistence or necessaries of life; the fact or state of being so provided.

2. The action of upholding or keeping in being a cause, right, state of things, government, etc.; the state or fact of being upheld or sustained.

3. The action of keeping something in working order, in repair, etc.; the keeping up of a building, institution, body of troops, etc., by providing means for equipment, etc.; the state or fact of being so kept up; means or provision for upkeep. [64]

Cambridge dictionary defines four different meanings. The first one is maintenance as work - the work needed to keep a road, building, machine, etc. in good condition. The second

78 one is maintenance as money - money that a person must pay regularly by law in order to support their child or previous marriage partner after a divorce (= official end to a marriage).

The third one is maintenance as a process - the process of making sure that something continues in the same way or at the same level. And the fourth one is maintenance as continued existence - a situation in which something continues to exist or is not allowed to become less. [65]

The difference between the two concepts is the information that repairing is required when something is already broken or damaged and maintenance is making sure that something

The difference between the two concepts is the information that repairing is required when something is already broken or damaged and maintenance is making sure that something

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