Pravděpodobně neexistuje pouţitelná a věrohodná metoda, která by prokázala, zda společensko-kulturní hlediska sehrály nějakou roli v rozhodování iniciátorů Proposition 187 a zda je případně tyto důvody mohly vést k sepsání restriktivního návrhu.
Zdá se, ţe (ne)schopnost asimilace některých přistěhovalců a důsledky z toho plynoucí budí obavy v řadě obyvatel Kalifornie. Tento faktor můţe významně
prohlubovat jiţ exitující zášť vůči imigrantům, které domácí obyvatelé vidí jako viníky špatné ekonomické situace nebo jako potencionální kriminálníky. Svůj podíl sehrála na tomto stavu i média, která hispánské přistěhovalce před veřejností do velké míry démonizovala. Obtíţné je pro stávající kalifornské obyvatele, hlavně bělochy,
přivyknout myšlence, ţe se v dohledné době stanou menšinou na úkor hispánců a jejich politický a kulturní vliv bude slábnout. Tyto faktory mohly pak do velké míry přispět ke vzniku a hlavně ke schválení návrhu Proposition 187.
57
Závěr
Spojené státy jsou tradiční zemí imigrantů, předkové dnešních obyvatel kdysi odešli do Nového světa s vidinou lepšího ţivota. Dnešní imigranti nechtějí nic jiného.132 Co se změnilo, je jejich přijímání obyvateli hostitelské země. Všichni přistěhovalci
„nové vlny“ uţ nemají zájem se plně asimilovat, „přijmout americkou kulturu a jazyk“133 a často ani neovládají angličtinu.
V Kalifornii pobývali v polovině devadesátých let odhadem dva miliony ilegálních imigrantů. V této době také zaţívala Kalifornie největší ekonomickou krizi od dob Velké hospodářské krize ve třicátých letech 20. století. Zesílená opozice vůči imigrantům se tradičně objevuje v dobách ekonomické recese a nejinak tomu bylo i tehdy. Legislativní návrh Proposition 187 odráţel obavy Kaliforňanů o ekonomickou budoucnost i předsudky vůči ilegálním imigrantům (často i těm legálním).
Navrhovatelé Proposition 187 argumentovali hlavně tím, ţe ilegální přistěhovalci nebývalé zatěţují kalifornský rozpočet, berou lidem práci a sniţují mzdy domácích obyvatel. Sledované zdroje tento negativní vliv ilegálních imigrantů neprokazují. Je přirozené, ţe na trhu práce mohou přistěhovalci podobných schopností a kvalifikace představovat konkurenci, avšak z prostudovaných pramenů vyplývá, ţe pokud uţ k takovému „ohroţení“ dochází, jsou jím mnohem více vystaveni dřívější imigranti Kalifornie. Analýza, kterou si nechal vypracovat prezident Bill Clinton, přiznává, ţe ilegální imigranti představují pro kalifornské veřejné finance zátěţ. Ovšem, ani porovnání příjmů a nákladů spojených s ilegální imigrací nevyznívá jednoznačně v neprospěch imigrantů. Vzhledem k tomu, ţe se celá debata o Proposition 187
„smrskla“ pouze na ekonomický pohled, upozadila tak sociální a další přínosy (i těţkosti) plynoucí z ilegální imigrace. Tvrzení, ţe se zvyšujícím se počtem ilegálních
132 SAIZ, Albert. The Impact of Immigration on American Cities: An Introduction to the Issues. Business Review [online]. 2003, Q4, [cit. 2010-07-06]. Dostupný z WWW:
<http://www.philadelphiafed.org/research-and-data/publications/business review/2003/q4/brq403asaiz.pdf>.
133 JOHNSON, JR., James A. ; FARELL, Walter C. ; GUINN, Chandra. Immigration Reform and Browning of America: Tensions, Conflicts and Community Instability in Metropolitian Los Angeles.
International Migration Review: Special Issue: Immigrant Adaptation and Native-Born Responses in the Making of America [online]. Winter 1997, Vol. 31, No. 4, [cit. 2010-07-03]. s. 1062. Dostupný z WWW:
<http://www.jstor.org.stable/2547424>.
58
imigrantů roste v Kalifornii kriminalita, se taktéţ nepodařilo prokázat. Autoři Proposition 187 neměli velice pravděpodobně ani hodnověrná data, kterými by toto ustanovení podepřeli.
Z kritické analýzy argumentů navrhovatelů Proposition 187 vyplývá, ţe většina jich nebyla řádně podloţena a některá ani neodpovídala pravdě. Zdá se, ţe tato tvrzení
„vycházela vstříc“ tehdejším proti-imigrantským náladám ve společnosti. Autorka práce se domnívá, ţe na pozadí vzniku návrhu sehrály svou roli i jiné faktory. Především to mohly být antagonistické postoje vůči ilegálním imigrantům i strach z narůstání hispánské populace, které povede ke sníţení politického a kulturního vlivu většinového obyvatelstva Kalifornie.
I kdyţ uvěříme tvrzení kalifornského guvernéra Peta Wilsona, ţe neměl s iniciováním Proposition 187 nic společného, pravdou je, ţe dokázal jejího
„potenciálu“ plně vyuţít. Zaměřením své kampaně na Proposition 187 odvrátil pozornost od širší problematiky ekonomické krize. Navíc se mu v důsledku mediálního zájmu okolo Proposition 187 podařilo získat pozornost federální vlády v otázkách imigrace, oč se předtím víceméně s neúspěchem pokoušel.
Vzhledem k tomu, ţe Proposition 187 byla v platnosti jen po omezenou dobu a některá její ustanovení nevešla v platnost vůbec134, je takřka nemoţné posoudit, zda uspěla ve svém cíli odradit další potencionální imigranty. K tomuto zjištění by bylo zapotřebí zkoumat, co vede imigranty k příchodu do nové země, čímţ se autoři a zastánci Proposition 187 moc nezabývali.
Ať uţ jsme anebo nejsme nakloněni imigraci, jakákoli studie těţko můţe vyčíslit nadšení, snahu, rozmanitost, pracovitost, nápady (stejně tak hodnotově opačné vlastnosti) ilegálních imigrantů, kteří mohou působit ve vzájemné interakci se stávajícími obyvateli jako „nový“ stimulační a dynamický prvek, jehoţ moţný dopad zůstává neznámý a nezměřitelný.
134 Některá ustanovení Proposition 187 nabývala platnosti později, od 1. 1. 1996.
59
Resumé
The thesis focuses on illegal immigration in California in the early 1990s. Its goal is to analyze relevance and accuracy of reasoning used by proponents of the Proposition 187. This bill was to limit access of illegal immigrants to social welfare, especially to public education and health care. The bill was enacted through a Californian referendum, only to be canceled afterwards by the Supreme Court of California due to the bill's interference with the competencies of the Federal Government in the area of immigration policy.
The thesis is divided into four chapters. The first chapter describes the state of the Californian economy in the early 1990s and reviews the contemporary perception of immigrants and the content of Proposition 187. The second chapter focuses on economic impact of immigration, specifically, on a question if illegal immigrants were really a burden for the Californian public budgets as it is claimed by the Proposition.
The third chapter analyzes if illegal immigrants are disproportionately involved in criminal activities. The fourth chapter reviews questions of assimilation of immigrants to a wider society and analyzes social and cultural factors that form the society's attitudes towards immigrants. It also looks into what other factors can cause negative attitudes towards the immigrants.
The analysis of available sources shows that the illegal immigrants were really burdening the Californian public budgets to a certain degree. Regarding unemployment, it is very difficult to substantiate the Proposition's claim that new immigrants caused an increase in unemployment of Californian established residents. Similarly, no reliable data sets lead to a clear conclusion that illegal immigrants are disproportionately involved in criminal activities. Overall, the reasoning of the proponents of the
Proposition 187 is not well grounded. The author of the paper argues that antagonistic attitudes to illegal immigration - along with the fear of increasing Hispanic population which might lead to a decreased political and cultural influence of the majority
population of California - played a major role in forming of the Proposition 187.
The proponents of the Proposition might have also wanted to wake up the Federal Government to the immigration issues and consequently to help ease the strain of illegal immigration on the Californian public budgets.
60
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Diplomové práce
KUČEROVÁ, Lenka. Kalifornská propozice 187 : Imigrační diskuse ve Spojených státech v polovině 90. let 20. století. Praha, 2006, 90 s. Diplomová práce. Univerzita Karlova, Fakulta sociálních věd, Institut mezinárodních studií.
70 Příloha č. 1: Proposition 187 (text)
dostupné z http://www.americanpatrol.com/REFERENCE/prop187text.html
Proposition 187: Text of Proposed Law 1994 - California
This initiative measure is submitted to the people in accordance with the provisions of Article II, Section 8 of the Constitution.
This initiative measure adds sections to various codes; therefore, new provisions proposed to be added are printed in {+ italic type +} to indicate that they are new.
PROPOSED LAW
SECTION 1. Findings and Declaration.
The People of California find and declare as follows:
That they have suffered and are suffering economic hardship caused by the presence of illegal aliens in this state.
That they have suffered and are suffering personal injury and damage caused by the criminal conduct of illegal aliens in this state.
That they have a right to the protection of their government from any person or persons entering this country unlawfully.
Therefore, the People of California declare their intention to provide for cooperation between their agencies of state and local government with the federal government, and to establish a system of required notification by and between such agencies to prevent illegal aliens in the United States from receiving benefits or public services in the State of California.
SECTION 2. Manufacture, Distribution or Sale of False Citizenship or Resident Alien Documents: Crime and Punishment.
Section 113 is added to the Penal Code, to read:
{+ 113. Any person who manufactures, distributes or sells false documents to conceal the true citizenship or resident alien status of another person is guilty of a felony, and shall be punished by imprisonment in the state prison for five years or by a fine of seventy-five thousand dollars ($75,000). +}
SECTION 3. Use of False Citizenship or Resident Alien Documents: Crime and Punishment.
71 Section 114 is added to the Penal Code, to read:
{+ 114. Any person who uses false documents to conceal his or her true citizenship or resident alien status is guilty of a felony, and shall be punished by imprisonment in the state prison for five years or by a fine of twenty-five thousand dollars ($25,000). +}
SECTION 4. Law Enforcement Cooperation with INS.
Section 834b is added to the Penal Code, to read:
{+ 834b. (a) Every law enforcement agency in California shall fully cooperate with the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service regarding any person who is arrested if he or she is suspected of being present in the United States in violation of federal immigration laws. +}
{+ (b) With respect to any such person who is arrested, and suspected of being present in the United States in violation of federal immigration laws, every law enforcement agency shall do the following: +}
{+ (1) Attempt to verify the legal status of such person as a citizen of the United States, an alien lawfully admitted as a permanent resident, an alien lawfully admitted for a temporary period of time or as an alien who is present in the United States in violation of immigration laws. The verification process may include, but shall not be limited to, questioning the person regarding his or her date and place of birth, and entry into the United States, and demanding documentation to indicate his or her legal status. +}
{+ (2) Notify the person of his or her apparent status as an alien who is present in the United States in violation of federal immigration laws and inform him or her that, apart from any criminal justice proceedings, he or she must either obtain legal status or leave the United States. +}
{+ (3) Notify the Attorney General of California and the United States Immigration and Naturalization Service of the apparent illegal status and provide any additional
information that may be requested by any other public entity. +}
{+ (c) Any legislative, administrative, or other action by a city, county, or other legally authorized local governmental entity with jurisdictional boundaries, or by a law
enforcement agency, to prevent or limit the cooperation required by subdivision (a) is expressly prohibited. +}
SECTION 5. Exclusion of Illegal Aliens from Public Social Services.
Section 10001.5 is added to the Welfare and Institutions Code, to read:
{+ 10001.5. (a) In order to carry out the intention of the People of California that only citizens of the United States and aliens lawfully admitted to the United States may receive the benefits of public social services and to ensure that all persons employed in the providing of those services shall diligently protect public funds from misuse, the provisions of this section are adopted. +}