UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS PRAGUE FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
GENDER ISSUES AND WOMEN DISCRIMINATION IN THE WORKPLACE: CLOSING THE GENDER
GAP
(COMPARISON BETWEEN SWEDEN AND THE CZECH REPUBLIC)
BACHELOR THESIS
2020 LUCIE TATOUŠKOVÁ
Declaration
I hereby declare that I am the sole author of the thesis entitled “Women discrimination in the workplace: Closing the gender gap (Comparison between Sweden and the Czech Republic).”
It is the result of my research, and I have adequately cited and referenced all original quotations.
In Prague on ………. ………..
Lucie Tatoušková
Acknowledgments
Foremost, I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my supervisor, Ing. Alena Filipová, Ph.D., for her patience, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge.
I would also like to thank to all my foreign friends who I met during my travels, especially during my time in Scandinavia, thanks to whom an initiative for this work was created.
Finally, to my caring, loving, and supportive parents, grandparents, and friends who made my studies possible and to all who gave me support, motivation, and positive energy when I needed it most.
List of Abbreviations
EEA The European Economic Area
EIGE European Institute for Gender Equality GPG Gender pay gap
MAS Masculinity versus Femininity index
OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development UNESCO United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organization WEF World Economic Forum
Contents
Introduction ... 1
1. Gender and its issues and discrimination ... 3
1.1. Discrimination and its forms ... 4
1.2. The Glass ceiling ... 7
1.3. Gender stereotypes and diversity of thinking ... 10
1.4. Cultural dimensions and its predispositions ... 12
2. The Global Gender Gap ... 16
2.1. The Global Gender Gap Index 2020 ... 16
2.2. Women in economic and political decision-making ... 22
2.1.1. Women on company boards ... 24
2.1.2. Women in the public sector ... 26
2.3. The wage gap and income differentiation and development ... 30
2.4. Token women ... 34
3. Work-life balance and family-policy ... 38
4. Key Findings ... 41
Conclusion ... 44
Bibliography ... 47
List of graphs ... 55
List of figures ... 55
1
Introduction
Gender diversity has been a topic of an increasing interest to scholars, policymakers, organizations, and the media for decades. Despite all the efforts and small steps towards gender equality, there are still many kinds of discrimination around the world, especially against women. Gender equality is not just about economic empowerment. It is rather a categorical imperative about political, cultural, and social equality and fairness. It also represents a factor in self-reported well-being and happiness.
This persistent problem affects not only developing countries but all countries around the world, which is quite critical in the 21st century, in a period of democracy, ever-increasing globalization and modern technology. I believe that there is an urgent need to focus on this topic, and it deserves more attention; that is why I have chosen to investigate this problematic topic.
This thesis's initiative is to evaluate gender inequality in the managerial environment and discrimination of women in multicultural reality, whether in terms of salary, social status, cachet, or internal hierarchy of professions, along with the existence of a “glass ceiling.” The main aim is to propose measures leading to reduction and preferably closing the gender gap and discrimination of women in the managerial environment and public sector. To achieve my objectives, I will use a comparison of the current situation in the Czech Republic and Sweden, where gender equality is actively promoted.
A prerequisite for my research is more balanced gender equality in favour of Sweden. Nordic approach prides on the promotion of gender equality, childcare-friendly policy, and mainstreaming gender issues for decades. It is also one of the reasons why I have decided on a comparison with this country. Another assumption is that differentiation can be directly affected by the culture, rooted predispositions, different mindsets, and lifestyles, last but not least, gender promotion rate, and effort to break stereotypes.
This thesis is divided into four main parts. The first chapter gives a brief overview of discrimination itself, bullying, and other forms of intolerance and explains key concepts that allow better orientation at my work. The theory of glass ceiling, which is current social problem, is defined, and it is asked whether women approaching higher-paid occupations face its obstacles. It describes discriminatory social norms and roles of women related to ingrained gender stereotypes but also the positive impact of diversity of thinking on economic growth.
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Finally, the analysis of cultural dimensions according to the well-known approach of Geert Hofstede is considered.
The second section examines the gender gap in educational attainment, economic participation, and political empowerment. A methodology of the Global Gender Gap Index is applied to measure gender differences in individual categories. I will look at the proportions of women’s representation on the companies’ boards and in the public sector, including parliaments and governments. Direct discrimination in the workplace is shown on a practical example of the existence of wage discrimination and unequal pay. Among other things, it also examines the effectiveness of the introduction of mandatory quotas in countries where they are already in place and the response to this measure by individual countries.
The third part, harmonization between work and family life leading to well-being, happiness, and above all, to motivate women in the rise in the career ladder is outlined. I will compare financial contributions and support for women during maternity leave and the possibility of working part-time in both compared countries.
The fourth part includes all investigation findings, and conclusions are drawn in the final section, which summarizes the approaches of both countries to this urgent issue and their solutions and measures. This chapter also includes an evaluation of academic contributions and recommendations for further research and proposing measures for improvement and speeding women’s presence in executive power.
This thesis deals with wage inequality, the representation of women on boards of directors and in the political sector, and the glass ceiling issue. Both psychological aspects and cultural habits and predispositions are considered. However, the religious position of women is not considered.
Examination of legislation related to discrimination and women’s right falls outside the scope of this thesis. My research focuses mainly on wage and gender discrimination in the workplace;
and while the topics of positive discrimination, sexual harassment, bullying, and discrimination based on skin colour, origin, religion are mentioned but they are not analysed in depth.
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1. Gender and its issues and discrimination
Before the given issue is extensively analysed, the right meaning of the word “gender,” which plays a vital role in this dissertation, needs to be given. Collins dictionary presents gender as “a state of being male or female to the social and cultural roles that are considered appropriate for men and women.”1 Oxford dictionary necessarily adds that “either of the two sexes (male and female) are concerning reference to social and cultural differences rather than biological ones.”2 In broad terms, “sex” attributes to the biological differences between both genders. In contrast,
“gender” is more difficult to describe as it can be meant as a role in society, known as a gender role or also as a gender identity. Their environment governs female and male behaviour and interactions under social norms and standards corresponding to femininity and masculinity.3 Traditionally, conforming to Hofstede, men tend to be involved more in the achievements outside the home and secure the household. As opposed to women who are supposed to be more concerned with gender roles like taking care of the children and household. Nevertheless, the terms masculinity and femininity are relative, not absolute: man's behaviour may match with the “feminine” way of behaving, and a woman can act in a "masculine" manner, which would mean a deviation from certain conventions in society. If the traditional values and beliefs are reinforced, and conventional gender roles are active, we can talk about stereotypes that will be described in-depth in the next section.
Another essential aspect which has a fundamental impact on gender role and its behaviour is culture. Indeed, gender roles vary from culture to culture, but also from personality to personality. Hofstede, therefore, infers that our behaviour is influenced culturally as well as mentally and psychologically. However, seeing as there is evidence pointing towards culture being learned rather than inborn, we should consider its influence to be not so much a rule, but a possibility.4
1 Gender definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary, 2020. [online]. [Accessed 18 March 2020].
Available from: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/gender.
2 Gender | Definition of Gender by Lexico, 2020. Lexico Dictionaries | English [online].
[Accessed 18 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/
3 HRDLIČKOVÁ, Alena. Úvod do gender studies. 1. vyd. České Budějovice: Vysoká škola evropských a regionálních studií, 2007, 165 p. Vysokoškolská učebnice. ISBN 978-80-86708-41-6.
4 HOFSTEDE, Geert, H., 1991. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London; New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-707474-6. P. 79-108.
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Gender identity describes who we are, how individuals perceive themselves, and feel inside. It is closely connected with our expressions and appearance through clothing, behaviour and look.
To clarify, it is simply the innermost self-identification to masculinity and femininity of both or none of those sexes. Gender also identifies the social and legal status of a girl, a woman, or, conversely, a boy, or a man.5
1.1. Discrimination and its forms
The origin of the term discrimination comes from the Latin word discriminare, the concept for differentiation and division. In the Czech law, this term is used in a negative sense and understood as a distinction that is morally flawed and simultaneously illegal at the level of constitutional, European, and international law. A direct way of discrimination delimits a manner of mistreating someone, including omission, when a person is treated less favourably than another in a comparable situation for the reason of personal characteristics assumption.6 A person may be discriminated against based on age, gender, skin colour, disability, religion, pregnancy, sexual orientation, gender reassignment, marriage, or relationship with someone who might be discriminated against. For instance, someone who has the required qualifications and enough experience, but the person is too young to be accepted to senior management.7 Whereas indirect discrimination occurs when all employees are treated similarly to workplace policy and practices, it can disadvantage someone with specific aspects and requirements. To illustrate, 12-hours long shifts for all can sound fair, but workers with families and child-caring responsibilities might be disadvantaged in this case. These conditions will most probably affect women and will represent barriers to their profession.8
Discrimination itself can occur and be defined in a vast number of forms. Workplace discrimination appears in many diverse shapes and is usually related to gender discrimination.
Indeed, it can be likewise associated with skin colour, ethnicity or a religion, and co-worker of a certain colour may undergo different treatment than a white-coloured co-worker; nonetheless,
5 Sex and Gender Identity, 2020. [online]. [Accessed 18 March 2020]. Available from:
https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/gender-identity/sex-gender-identity
6 BARTOŇ, Michal, KRATOCHVÍL, Jan, KOPA, Martin, TOMOSZEK, Maxim, JIRÁSEK, Jiří, and SVAČEK, Ondřej, 2016. Základní práva. Praha: Leges. ISBN 978-80-7502-128-1.
7 What Is Discrimination? « EOC, 2020. [online]. [Accessed 19 March 2020]. Available from:
https://www.eoc.org.uk/what-is-discrimination/
8 Discrimination and Harassment at The Workplace, 2020. [online]. [Accessed 19 March 2020]. Available from:
https://www.humanrightscommission.vic.gov.au/the-workplace/workplace-discrimination
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it is not the main topic of this research.9 Gender discrimination is “unequal treatment of equally productive individuals because of gender.”10 Lower pay for a position in contrast to a person of the opposite sex with the same or even fewer qualifications and skills is often included and called wage discrimination. In other words, wage discrimination exists if the man, in most cases, in the same position as a woman, receives a higher salary. This research is particularly focused on this type of discrimination.
One of the other kinds of discrimination is employment discrimination in the workplace. That kind of discrimination is linked to the employer’s preference to recruit men rather than women, which leads to a higher unemployment rate among women and their demotivation. Women often have limited access to individual sectors and are pushed to ordinary female professions with usually lower earning potentials. In society, there is a discrimination against human capital, which is characterized by limited or more complicated access to training, mentoring, or gaining work experience in particular fields.11 Discrimination against pregnancy or potential maternity, respectively paternity, creates a relatively significant obstacle at work, including non-acceptance based on acquainted information during the interview. Employers may assume that it is risky to hire women of childbearing age for a critical spot as it could be subsequently hard to find a replacement. Not only rejection but also insufficient work conditions are holding individuals from higher positions like CEOs and slowing them down on their career paths.12 Gender discrimination, together with overall discrimination itself, is considered illegal, but despite its illegality is widespread in most places and parts of the world. Gender-based discrimination is a less favourable treatment for a person of one sex than a person of the opposite only because of their female or male affiliation.13 If the application for a job in the company is sent, there is a necessity to meet some requirements and most probably to pass a hiring test or
9 BROŽOVÁ, Dagmar. Kapitoly z ekonomie trhů práce. Praha: Oeconomica, 2012. p. 161-168. ISBN 978-80- 245-1880-0.
10 OECD, 2008. Policy Brief: Ending Job Discrimination [online]. 2008. Available from:
https://www.oecd.org/els/emp/Ending-job-discrimination-2008.pdf
11 BROŽOVÁ, Dagmar. Kapitoly z ekonomie trhů práce. Praha: Oeconomica, 2012. p. 161-168. ISBN 978-80- 245-1880-0.
12 Gender Discrimination at Work, 2019. Equal Rights Advocates [online]. [Accessed 19 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.equalrights.org/issue/economic-workplace-equality/discrimination-at-work/
13 SKÁLOVÁ, Helena, 2010. Neviditelný problém: rovnost a diskriminace v Praxi: sborník textů autorského kolektivu k problematice rovnosti a diskriminace v ČR. Praha: Gender studies. ISBN 978-80-86520-30-8.
HQ1610.3.N487 2010
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undergo a selection process, but nowhere is it written that someone can be paid less, be fired, get fewer opportunities or less favourable conditions due to current or future maternity.14 A person can be a victim of gender-based verbal or physical harassment. Harassment is a specific form of workplace discrimination and is also very common. According to the European Commission, "unwanted conduct, bullying, or other behaviour has the purpose or effect of creating an intimidating, hostile, degrading, humiliating, or offensive environment.“15 Harassing includes jokes, insults, physical assaults or threats, name-calling, and may result in sexual harassment.16
It is necessary to distinguish the concept of harassment and bullying. Bullying is best described as undesirable aggressive behaviour using force or threat to take dominate imbalance power over someone else several times or with a likelihood of repetition. Bullying may cause suffering and harm, physical, psychological, and social harm included. These violent activities consist of physical and verbal attacks, humiliation, professional exclusion or isolation of individuals, offensive criticism, or the spreading of rumours. Bullying arises in many settings, notably among youth on school grounds, yet we can also come across this action in the workplace.17 Lastly, it is necessary to mention that in defiance of the negative actions of treatment, discrimination can be similarly defined as positive. Positive discrimination is a situation where an individual or a group of people has certain benefits. Positive discrimination appears when better conditions for discriminated groups are created -either to avoid being accused of discriminating against the opposite (negative discrimination) or on the grounds of affection.18 Countless types, explanations, and attitudes to positive perceptions can be found. Some of them were explained in the 35 years of extensive research of Harrison et al., who reported four main division types of positive discrimination. Firstly, they mention "Opportunity enhancement,"
14 Gender Discrimination at Work, 2019. Equal Rights Advocates [online]. [Accessed 19 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.equalrights.org/issue/economic-workplace-equality/discrimination-at-work/
15 EUROPEAN COMMISSION, [no date]. Combating discrimination in the workplace. [online].
[Accessed 7 May 2020]. Available from: https://ec.europa.eu/social/main.jsp?catId=1437&langId=en
16 DOLEY, Alison, 2019. The Different Types of Harassment in the Workplace. The Balance Careers [online].
[Accessed 24 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.thebalancecareers.com/types-of-harassment-in-the- workplace-2060886
17 R.MATTHEW GLADDEN, Ph.D. ET AL., 2014. Bullying surveillance among youths: Uniform definitions for public health and recommended data elements. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the United States Department of Education. 2014. P. 116.
18 SKÁLOVÁ, Helena, 2010. Neviditelný problém: rovnost a diskriminace v Praxi: sborník textů autorského kolektivu k problematice rovnosti a diskriminace v ČR. Praha: Gender studies. ISBN 978-80-86520-30-8.
HQ1610.3.N487 2010
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which offers individual assistance and training for target groups, especially underrepresented group members, prior to recruitment itself to help them but not privilege them. The second type is examined as “equal opportunities” in the form of forbidding to prefer significant groups of people before the minority. Under conditions of equivalent qualifications, “weak preferential treatment," also called "tiebreak” gives a slight promotion and preference to minor members.
Last but not least is “strong preferential treatment” when the choice is unequivocally given to disadvantaged and underrepresented individuals, as is the case with mandatory quotas.19
1.2. The Glass ceiling
When someone refers to the “glass ceiling,” it determines a metaphor for the invisible barrier (“glass”) between the level of advancement, which can be seen but not reached (“ceiling”).20 These complex attitudes and traditions in our society prevent especially women and other minorities from rising to top-level jobs.21 Even though glass is described as invisible, the glass ceiling is real, disregarding one’s qualifications, skills, or achievements. It should be illegal, but it is still prevailing in most countries around the world.22
Another illustration for good measure of the “glass ceiling”, which is cutting off women’s success from possibly higher status, is its parallel paradox called “glass escalator”. As mentioned in the New York Times analysis, the number of men who are entering female- dominated professions like teaching and nursing are on the rise nowadays. If the woman enters the male-dominated corporate world, she will probably hit a glass ceiling and stay stuck in the middle management position, also called “the frozen middle” instead of rising to senior-level management.
19 HARRISON, David A. et al. Understanding attitudes toward affirmative action programs in employment:
Summary and meta-analysis of 35 years of research. Journal of Applied Psychology. 2006, vol. 91, no. 5, s.
1013-1036. ISSN 0021-9010
20 Davies-Netzley, Sally A. (1998). Women above the Glass Ceiling: Perceptions on Corporate Mobility and Strategies for Success Gender and Society, Vol. 12, No. 3, p. 340, DOI:10.1177/0891243298012003006. JSTOR 190289
21 Glass ceiling definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary, [no date]. [online].
[Accessed 17 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/glass-ceiling
22 What is a glass ceiling? Definition and meaning, 2020. BusinessDictionary.com [online]. [Accessed 17 March 2020]. Available from: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/glass-ceiling.html
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Alternatively, man will use the glass escalator's hidden powers straight to the top; meanwhile, a woman will take the stairs.23 Women during the decades dominated the teaching profession;
men tend to carry higher positions at schools such as deans or principals.24
Graph 1: Glass-ceiling index, 2018i
Source: THE ECONOMIST, 2019. The glass-ceiling index. [online]. [Accessed 18 March 2020]. Available from:
https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2019/03/08/the-glass-ceiling-index
Glass-ceiling index considers five indicators: “the number of men and women respectively with tertiary education; female labour-force participation; the male-female wage gap; the proportion of women in senior jobs; and net childcare costs relative to the average wage. The first four are given equal weighting, the fifth a lower one since not all working women have children.”25 Referring to Graph 1, top rankings positions are held by Nordic countries with Sweden in the first place, followed by Norway, Iceland, and Finland. Nordic-style welfare state policies actively help and support women in completing university degrees and securing a job afterward.26 All Nordic countries have a remarkably high rate of labour-force women's
23 GOUDREAU, Jenna, 2012. A New Obstacle for Professional Women: The Glass Escalator. Forbes [online].
[Accessed 18 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.forbes.com/sites/jennagoudreau/2012/05/21/a-new- obstacle-for-professional-women-the-glass-escalator
24 MEN, WOMEN, & THE GLASS ESCALATOR, 2013. Women on Business [online].
[Accessed 18 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.womenonbusiness.com/men-women-the-glass- escalator/
25 THE ECONOMIST, 2013. The glass-ceiling index. The Economist [online]. 2013. [Accessed 8 May 2020].
Available from: https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2013/03/07/the-glass-ceiling-index
26 THE ECONOMIST, 2013. The glass-ceiling index. The Economist [online]. 2013. [Accessed 8 May 2020].
Available from: https://www.economist.com/graphic-detail/2013/03/07/the-glass-ceiling-index
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participation and generous parental paid-leave that encourage women's economic participation, as is the case in Sweden in particular. In favour of Norway, the impact of mandatory women quotas can be considered. At the same time, it may be speculated whether this has a positive effect or is instead a paradox. Hand in hand, Nordic countries promote women-friendly policies, gender-equal values, and feminist movements, notably in political women’s representation.27 Conversely, the Czech Republic is slightly below the OECD average, and it is visible that the gap between leading Sweden and the Czech Republic is substantial, around 25 %. It can be rooted both in cultural traits and in insufficient promotion and conditions. The above-listed arguments affect finite numbers on graph 1, and further investigations below prove this theory.
The opposite reaction to breaking glass-ceiling is "acceptance," and prioritizing family matters over developing careers. 28 As Anna stated, "When we receive applications for top-level managerial positions, I could not say that there are only men. On the other hand, I do not think we can reach complete gender equality for now since fewer women desire and are interested in reaching these positions.”29 Due to family responsibilities, women may be forced to choose between having a baby or having a career. Some investigations even prove that due to career pressure and endeavour, some females tend to have fewer children or forgo having a child.30 Ch. Glass and Alison Cook in their research affirm that another reason why women are demotivated and do not want to reach top-level positions is a lack of support and coping with authority from subordinates and peers. McGuire's evidence is correct because the representation of women in male-dominated jobs receives less support from colleagues than their male peers.
These challenges can limit women’s ability to influence the company’s outcome and weaken their overall performance.31 Additionally, a critical barrier for women leadership is the lack of
27 NIMA SANDAJI, 2018. The Nordic Glass Ceiling. Cato Institute [online]. 8 March 2018.
[Accessed 31 May 2020]. Available from: https://www.cato.org/publications/policy-analysis/nordic-glass-ceiling
28 ARASU, B. & LATHABHAVAN, REMYA., 2017. Women’s glass ceiling beliefs predict work engagement and burnout. Journal of Management Development. 36. 00-00. 10.1108/JMD-12-2016-0282.
29 Personal interview with Anna, HR Recruitment Manager, SAP Prague, 30.5.2020.
30 CHISHOLM-BURNS, Marie A., SPIVEY, Christina A., HAGEMANN, Tracy, and JOSEPHSON, Michelle A., 2017. Women in leadership and the bewildering glass ceiling. American Journal of Health-System
Pharmacy. 1 March 2017. Vol. 74, no. 5, p. 312–324. DOI 10.2146/ajhp160930.
31 GLASS, Christy, and COOK, Alison, 2016. Leading at the top: Understanding women’s challenges above the glass ceiling. The Leadership Quarterly. February 2016. Vol. 27, no. 1, p. 51–63.
DOI 10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.09.003.
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opportunities, resources, recognition, and networks.32 Occasionally, the term "old boy network"
is also used as a barrier and refers to men who had been studying the same college (private in most cases) or share a similar background.33 Based on this connection, they use their influence to help each other get a good job or some other social advantages. Old boy networks might exclude women and other minorities through explicit or implicit preferences.34 While men tend to form old boy networks that hold together, women remain rather lonely, especially in top management.35
Last but not least, here also depends whether the person expects the barrier and will try to overcome it or whether the wall will be built itself by not trying to leap over.
1.3. Gender stereotypes and diversity of thinking
Women are underrepresented in top-level management and parliaments, a complex process full of different aspects to consider. However, often discussed discrimination often occurs unwittingly from learned and cultural stereotypes. The main barrier of gender equality and equal opportunities is not legislation, but it is breaking deep-rooted stereotypes, expectations, preconceptions, and roles which are given.36 In general terms in gendered personality traits are women are assumed to be more emotional, expressive, honest, and more successful in dealing with issues such as childcare, education, and a healthy lifestyle. Contrarily, men are expected to be more competent, aggressive, and better in decision-making, more influential leaders, and have the ability to handle crises, innovations, and development.37
32 CHISHOLM-BURNS, Marie A., SPIVEY, Christina A., HAGEMANN, Tracy, and JOSEPHSON, Michelle A., 2017. Women in leadership and the bewildering glass ceiling. American Journal of Health-System
Pharmacy. 1 March 2017. Vol. 74, no. 5, p. 312–324. DOI 10.2146/ajhp160930.
33 CAMBRIDGE ENGLISH DICTIONARY, [no date]. THE OLD-BOY NETWORK | meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary. [online]. [Accessed 17 June 2020]. Available from:
https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/old-boy-network
34 LALANNE, MARIE & SEABRIGHT, PAUL., 2011. The Old Boy Network: Gender Differences in the Impact of Social Networks on Remuneration in Top Executive Jobs [online]. 2011. Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228293635_The_Old_Boy_Network_Gender_Differences_in_the_Imp act_of_Social_Networks_on_Remuneration_in_Top_Executive_Jobs
35 DANIELA PAUKNEROVÁ, EVA JAROŠOVÁ, HANA LORENCOVÁ, 2017. Nové trendy v leadershipu.
Management Press. ISBN: 9788072614790
36 BOBBITT-ZEHER, DONNA. GENDER DISCRIMINATION AT WORK: Connecting Gender Stereotypes, Institutional Policies, and Gender Composition of Workplace. Gender and Society. 2011, vol. 25, no. 6, s. 764- 786. ISSN 0891-2432.
37 DOLAN, Kathleen. Gender Stereotypes, Candidate Evaluations, and Voting for Women Candidates: What Really Matters? Political Research Quarterly. 2014, vol. 67, no. 1, s. 96-107. ISSN 1065-9129.
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While traditional female occupations are recognised as a nurse, secretary, librarian, or elementary school teacher, managerial position “requires an achievement-oriented aggressiveness and emotional toughness that is distinctly male in character”38 which was proven by Helmain, Block, and Marten. In a high-level management environment, it can be illustrated in the research proposed by AllBright saying that positions such as CEOs, business areas, operative managers, and sales positions mostly work for men and women that attain certain human resources, public relations, and communication and law.39 This evidence clearly shows the apparent number of women’s representation in business but only in the lower part of the management pyramid, not at the very top.
Figure 1: Impact of stereotypes on decision-making
Source: DOLAN, Kathleen. Gender Stereotypes, Candidate Evaluations, and Voting for Women Candidates: What Really Matters? Political Research Quarterly. 2014, vol. 67, no. 1, s. 96-107. ISSN 1065-9129.
Gender stereotypes play an important role in making decisions and choices and impair women’s careers, as Dolan typifies in Figure 1 above. This situation can turn against a candidate during the recruiting process, in social position, role, and recognition by others either in the workplace or in the household, the possibility to rise to a higher position on the career ladder is afterward
38 BURKE, Ronald J. (ed.), 1997. Women in Corporate Management [online]. Dordrecht: Springer, Netherlands.
[Accessed 31 May 2020]. ISBN 978-94-010-6364-7. P.9.
39 AMANDA LUNDETEG ET AL., 2017. Women CEOs choose gender equality [online]. September 2017. The AllBright Report. Available from:
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5501a836e4b0472e6124f984/t/59cb7082b7411c70275a6eb9/15065048980 83/The+AllBright+report+2017.pdf
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clearly reduced, returning to the hypothesis of the glass ceiling.40 Interestingly, the AllBright report evinces that women tend to hire women, and men tend to hire men. That entails that the proportion of women in senior management is undoubtedly higher in companies with a woman CEO.41
People have different social and physical attributes based on sex, race, or social background.
There is a shred of evidence that with more significant gender diversity, a company can be more innovative, profitable and boost the overall performance, in contrast to the homogenous groups, which may suffer from lack of creativity and critical thinking. A more diverse group of people may see what has hidden behind the closed door thanks to divergent views and spot new opportunities. Moreover, thanks to the diverse workforce, enhanced groups attempt to better understand customer’s needs and requirements, more exceptional ability of management skills, and also offer access to a larger pool of talent.42 Over the past decade, the growing interest in different approaches to diversifying company management was recorded. Diverse management can maximize innovation and company control.43
1.4. Cultural dimensions and its predispositions
Lastly, what must not be unheeded is the cultural difference between Sweden and the Czech Republic and innate predispositions of given cultures. The numerical expression of the women’s representation in leadership can be influenced by the relationship between national culture and the perception of their presence and abilities in top-level positions. This is illustrated by the theory of cultural dimensions of the prominent Dutch sociologist and psychologist Geert Hofstede who has been examining the differences and interactions between different national and organizational cultures.44
40 Gender Identity & Roles | Feminine Traits & Stereotypes, [no date]. [online]. [Accessed 19 March 2020].
Available from: https://www.plannedparenthood.org/learn/gender-identity/sex-gender-identity/what-are-gender- roles-and-stereotypes
41 AMANDA LUNDETEG ET AL., 2017. Women CEOs choose gender equality [online]. September 2017. The AllBright Report. Available from:
https://static1.squarespace.com/static/5501a836e4b0472e6124f984/t/59cb7082b7411c70275a6eb9/15065048980 83/The+AllBright+report+2017.pdf
42 André, C. and H. Bourrousse, 2017, “Fighting gender inequality in Sweden”, OECD Economics Department Working Papers, No. 1395, OECD Publishing, Paris. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/37b4d789-en
43 WIRTH-DOMINICÉ, Linda, and INTERNATIONALES ARBEITSAMT (eds.), 2015. Women in business and management: gaining momentum; global report. Geneva: Internat. Labour Organisation. ISBN 978-92-2- 128873-2.
44 GEERT HOFSTEDE AND GERT JAN HOFSTEDE ON CULTURE. Geert Hofstede [online].
[Accessed 31 May 2020]. Available from: https://geerthofstede.com/
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The study of Hofstede compares national culture to value differences and classifies four independent dimensions based on primary data collected from multinational company IBM where he worked: Power Distance, Uncertain Avoidance, Individualism versus Collectivism, and Masculinity versus Femininity (shortly MAS).45 The following two parameters are approached and applied in this study: Masculinity vs. Femininity and Power Distance to analyse the impact of given cultures on the perception of a woman in a leadership position and attitude toward social equality. However, Uncertain Avoidance and Individualism versus Collectivism, are not discussed in this study as those are considered to be of lesser importance for this analysis.
The first parameter is a concept of Masculinity vs. Femininity, i.e., the social and emotional implications of having been born as a boy or girl. Masculine society is driven by success, competition, and achievement. It is illustrated by a high score, representing the Czech Republic with a score of 5, as shown in Graph 2 below. In contrast, Sweden belongs to the feminine culture (a low rating), a preference for quality of life, negotiation, and compromise over the competition.46,47 As Hofstede quotes in his book: “A masculine society socializes our children towards assertiveness, ambition, and competition, organizations in masculine societies, stress results, and reward is based on equity, i.e., to every one according to performance.” On the other hand, feminine society is described as such: “organizations in such societies are more likely to reward people based on equality (as opposed to equity)." 48 The masculine manager is described as assertive, decisive, and aggressive, while the manager in feminine culture is intuitive rather than decisive and accustomed to seeking consensus.
Moreover, the Swedish culture is based on the concept of "lagom," which can be freely translated as "not too much, not too little, just right!" It is a type of fictional law and a humanistic approach rooted in the Swedish lifestyle, which suggests people not to boast or try to lift themselves above others.49 At the workplace, it could be applied as equal, treating everyone
45 INSIGHTS, Hofstede. Our models. [online]. [Accessed 31 May 2020]. Available from: https://hi.hofstede- insights.com/models
46 HOFSTEDE, Geert, H., 1991. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London; New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-707474-6.
47 COUNTRY COMPARISON. Hofstede Insights [online]. [Accessed 31 May 2020]. Available from:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/
48 HOFSTEDE, Geert, H., 1991. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London; New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-707474-6. P. 93.
49 COUNTRY COMPARISON. Hofstede Insights [online]. [Accessed 31 May 2020]. Available from:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/Country comparison
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without a difference and respect for each other. As one of the participants in Åkerblom’s research based on focus group interviews declares: “Do not think you are special, just because you are a manager! You should be just like everyone else.”50 Besides, in the countries with a higher MAS index, thus Sweden included, a smaller gender wage gap and greater women’s representation was found.51
Interestingly, there is also evidence that feminine culture in Sweden goes back long the way to the Viking period of traders and seafarers (AD 800-1000) when the women had to manage the villages while men were away.52
Graph 2: Hofstede dimensions of Masculinity index and Power distance: Country comparison
Source: HOFSTEDE GEERT. Country Comparison. Hofstede Insights [online]. [Accessed 31 May 2020]. Available from:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/; Graph: personal collecting
50 ESTER BARINAGA, 1999. Swedishness through lagom Can word tell us anything about a culture? [online].
June 1999. Centre for Advanced Studies in Leadership. ISSN 1402-0726
51 HOFSTEDE, Geert, 2001. Culture's consequences: comparing values, behaviours, institutions, and
organizations across nations. 2. ed., [Nachdr.]. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publ. ISBN 978-0-8039-7324-4. P.
297.
52 HOFSTEDE, Geert, H., 1991. Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London; New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-707474-6. P. 79-108.
15
Secondly, social inequality calculated using Power distance is defined as “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed unequally.”53 Returning to Graph 2 above, Sweden scored lower at 31 out of 100, which alludes to independence, equal rights, coaching leaders, superiors accessibility, and primarily facilitation and empowerment of management. On the contrary, the Czech Republic achieved a comparatively high score (57), which points out to hierarchical society. Hierarchy is perceived as an organization with integral inequalities, centralization, and empowerment of superiors.54
Considering all circumstances based on collected data, it can be declared that Sweden has unequivocally more women-friendly, benevolent and equal policy in comparison to the Czech Republic, and it can considerably affect the overall gender gap, female labour force proportion and wage gap included.
53 COUNTRY COMPARISON. Hofstede Insights [online]. [Accessed 31 May 2020]. Available from:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/Country comparison
54 COUNTRY COMPARISON. Hofstede Insights [online]. [Accessed 31 May 2020]. Available from:
https://www.hofstede-insights.com/country-comparison/Country comparison
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2. The Global Gender Gap
To be a woman or a girl in compliance with gender equality refers to having “equal access to quality education, economic resources, and political participation as well as equal opportunities with men and boys for employment, leadership, and decision-making at all levels.”55 Gender equality is not just about economic empowerment and an increased proportion of females in the workplace; however, it is first about equal opportunities and treatment regardless of gender.56 Last but not least, it is an essential human right and a key driver of inclusive growth and one of the critical factors for well-being and happiness across the world.57
Over the past five years, OECD countries have taken the step forward to get closer to gender equality goals, and Scandinavian countries have long been at the top line of gender equality in the workplace during the past few years.58 Besides, a high share of women in the workplace and paid employment, Nordic employment, and wage gaps are among the OECD’s smallest.59 The following subchapter is dedicated to the Global Gender Gap index calculated by World Economic Forum and detailed comparison of Sweden, which is sometimes called a "feminist country" where the rights concerning equality are considered the best and the Czech Republic.
2.1. The Global Gender Gap Index 2020
60The WEF Global Gender Gap Report benchmarks 153 countries worldwide to determine gender equality. This index serves to “measure gender-based gaps in access to resources and opportunities in countries rather than the actual levels of the available resources and
55 RITTER-HAYASHI, Daniela, VERMEULEN, Patrick, and KNOBEN, Joris, 2019. Is this a man’s world? The effect of gender diversity and gender equality on firm innovativeness. PLOS ONE. 18 September 2019. Vol. 14, no. 9, p. e0222443. DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0222443.
56 COWAN, Renee L., and FOX, Suzy, 2015. Being pushed and pulled: a model of US HR professionals’ roles in bullying situations. Personnel Review. 2 February 2015. Vol. 44, no. 1, p. 119–139. DOI 10.1108/PR-11- 2013-0210.
57 OECD (ed.), 2012. Closing the gender gap: act now. Paris: OECD. ISBN 978-92-64-17936-3.
58 OECD, 2018. Is the Last Mile the Longest? Economic Gains from Gender Equality in Nordic Countries.
OECD. ISBN 978-92-64-30003-3.
59 RITTER-HAYASHI, Daniela, VERMEULEN, Patrick, and KNOBEN, Joris, 2019. Is this a man’s world? The effect of gender diversity and gender equality on firm innovativeness. PLOS ONE. 18 September 2019. Vol. 14, no. 9, p. e0222443. DOI 10.1371/journal.pone.0222443.
60 WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020 [online]. Geneva, Switzerland.
ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2.
17
opportunities in those countries.”61 This implies that there is no rule in receiving necessarily high scores by highly developed countries in contrast to developing ones. The Global Gender Gap Index has been functioning since 2006 and considers four primary categories, and its component subcategories to appraise how equal the states are:
Economic Participation and Opportunity:
Labour force participation rate Wage Equality for similar work Estimated earned income
Legislators, senior officials, and managers Professional and technical workers
Educational Attainment:
Literacy rate
Enrolment in primary education Enrolment in secondary education Enrolment in tertiary education Health and Survival:
Sex ratio at birth
Healthy life expectancy
Political Empowerment:
Women in parliament
Women in ministerial positions Years with female/male head of state62
61 WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2018. Measuring the Gap. Global Gender Gap Report 2018 [online].
[Accessed 7 June 2020]. Available from: https://wef.ch/2KVHDL2
62 WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020 [online]. Geneva, Switzerland.
ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2.
18
Graph 3: Percentage of the gender gap closed to date, 2020
Source: WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020. ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2; Graph: personal collecting
Global Gender Gap Report 2020 reveals that gender parity is not going to be obtained within the next 99.5 years, which is still a little improvement compared to 2018, where the assumption for closing the gap was 108 years. As illustrated in Graph 3, sub-indexes Educational Attainment and Health and Survival are relatively close (96,1 % and 95,7 %, respectively) compared to political and economic equality indexes, which is quite critical. The data show that the spread of education during the past 50 years in OECD countries had mirrored in about half of the economic growth and boosted the female labour participation.63 According to the available statistics, girls even outperform boys in educational attainment in most countries and represent effective talent pool and national resources. The problem occurs when the student comes from a socioeconomically disadvantaged family and cannot afford to study. In most cases, studies are made possible for boys more than for girls in terms of social status.64
Still sobering up is the first category about Economic Participation and Opportunity, with only 57,8 %, which represents rather alarming 257 years until complete closure of the gap. Three following fundamental reasons could cause it: women are mostly represented in “female professions,” not an adequate number of women are entering into the profession with gradual
63 OECD (ed.), 2012. Closing the gender gap: act now. Paris: OECD. ISBN 978-92-64-17936-3.
64 WIRTH-DOMINICÉ, Linda, and INTERNATIONALES ARBEITSAMT (eds.), 2015. Women in business and management: gaining momentum; global report. Geneva: Internat. Labour Organisation. ISBN 978-92-2- 128873-2.
19
wage growth (mainly in technology), and lastly facing permanent problems with access to funds and insufficient care infrastructure.65 Formal childcare support, better working conditions, and promotion of women among managers and in company boards are vital for boosting female employment and achieving greater gender equality throughout working life.66
Overall, the most progressive since last year has been Political Empowerment sub-index, followed by improvements on the Health and Survival and Educational Attainment sub- indexes. Despite the positive momentum in Political Empowerment, the gap is still enormous, counting only 24,7 % of gap closure to date, which means that women in the public political sphere are highly under-represented.67
Graph 4: The Global Gender Gap Index rankings, 2020ii
Source: WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020. ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2; Graph: personal collecting
65 WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020 [online]. Geneva, Switzerland.
ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2.
66 OECD (ed.), 2012. Closing the gender gap: act now. Paris: OECD. ISBN 978-92-64-17936-3.
67 WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020 [online]. Geneva, Switzerland.
ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2.
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Graph 2 illustrates the top ten countries with the smallest global gender gap this year. Besides, the largest and most important world's largest economies, such as the UK, the US, and China, are also displayed together with Yemen, the gender gap being the largest and the most critical.
The score of an individual country is measured in numbers from 0 to 1, which need to be recalculated to a percentage that shows how close the gap is. Immediately, the Nordic countries, namely Iceland, Norway, Finland, and Sweden, are the leaders in the least gender inequality.
Since 2006 when the first global gender report was published, Sweden has slipped down from the leading position to 4th place, nowadays stagnating at 82 %. The Czech Republic occupies 78th place out of 153countries at the moment, having slightly dipped from 53rd rank since 2006, supposing only 115 countries figured are considered.68 It should be mentioned that the Czech Republic is not prospering compared to the rest of the EU.
Interestingly, the 5th position is held by Nicaragua, one of the least Latin America's developed countries, where access to basic services and poverty is a persistent obstacle.69 This supports what has been mentioned before; access to resources and opportunities is the primary measure of the gender gap rather than the actual level of available resources. Therefore, it is about attitude, appropriate measures, and women's promotion rather than about the level of advancement of individual countries.70
68 RICARDO HAUSMANN, LAURA D. TYSON, SAADIA ZAHIDI, EDITORS, 2006. The Global Gender Gap Report 2006 [online]. Geneva, Switzerland: World Economic Forum. Available from:
http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2006.pdf
69 WORLD BANK, 2020. Overview: Nicaragua. World Bank [online]. [Accessed 8 June 2020]. Available from:
https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/nicaragua/overview
70 WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020. ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2
21
Graph 5: The Global Gender Gap Index rankings by sub index, 2020
Source: WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020. ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2; Graph: personal collecting
Graph 2 offers a more detailed view, juxtaposing Sweden and the Czech Republic based on four listed dimensions. Both countries stand out at education enrolment which only affirms that Swedish and Czech people pride themselves on high-quality education free of charge, which might also be one of the aspects that lead to better-educated population. The Czech Republic reports even better results than Sweden, although according to Williams and Leahy’ Sweden has one of the best education systems in the world.71 It could be very likely caused by a big surge of migration, which accounts for approximately 28,7 % of foreign citizens together with a proportion of foreign-born in Sweden.72 The origin of immigrants is mostly from Syria and Afghanistan, where it is challenging to be a woman, and there is evidence that women take care of the household and kids instead of going into education. This statement is confirmed by Afghan statistics, which observed that 85 % of women have no formal education and are
71 WILLIAMS, Ross, and LEAHY, Anne. Ranking of National Higher Education Systems 2019 [online].
[Accessed 8 June 2020]. Available from: https://universitas21.com/sites/default/files/2019- 04/Full%20Report%20and%20Cover.pdf
72 STATISTICS SWEDEN, 2019. Summary of Population Statistics 1960–2019. [online].
[Accessed 28 March 2020]. Available from: https://www.scb.se/en/finding-statistics/statistics-by-subject- area/population/population-composition/population-statistics/pong/tables-and-graphs/yearly-statistics--the- whole-country/summary-of-population-statistics/#Fotnoter
22
illiterate.73 As World Economic Forum claims, Afghanistan and Syria are marked as one of the worst countries to be a woman in, and this may be the reason why the closure of the educational gap is not complete.74
The health and survival gaps are in favour of both countries and are relatively positive with most countries, where 39 countries reached equality, and other 74 countries stay around the level of 97 %. The essential obstacle in today’s world is the extensive gap in Economic and Political empowerment where women are underrepresented the most. This problem relates to all countries all over the world and needs to be solved and mainstreamed more in nowadays society. Even though Economic Participation and Opportunity slightly hibernated during the last few years, Sweden still got a good score in comparison to the Czech Republic, and the gap is now 79 % closed. Nonetheless, Sweden prevails among the top fifteen countries in labour force participation and income gender gap. While Sweden boasts the 16th position, Czech Republic can be found around 87th place surrounded by African countries and Asia.
As reported above, on average, only 24,7 % of the Political Empowerment gap is closed worldwide. In defiance of such a small number, at 70,1 % there is an island of countries where the headway towards gender equality is most progressive; 70,1 % means three times closer than the average. Notably, the political empowerment gender gap is closing in Sweden as well.
52,5 % among the top ten countries could be defined in terms of not having a woman head of state in the country. On the contrary, Czech women seem to be isolated from political power and face 81,1 % of the remaining gap.75
2.2. Women in economic and political decision-making
The OECD highlights that getting higher education in OECD countries is the key to changing women's lives and ensuring equal labour market opportunities.76 Although it seems to be reasonable, this approach contradicts the figures conducted in the research above. Returning to the results of the Global Gender Gap index posed in the previous chapter, it is now possible to
73 AVENUE, Human Rights Watch, 2017. “I Won’t Be a Doctor, and One Day You’ll Be Sick” | Girls’ Access to Education in Afghanistan. Human Rights Watch [online]. 17 October 2017. [Accessed 28 March 2020].
Available from: https://www.hrw.org/report/2017/10/17/i-wont-be-doctor-and-one-day-youll-be-sick/girls- access-education-afghanistan
74 WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020. ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2
75 WORLD ECONOMIC FORUM, 2019. Global Gender Gap Report 2020. ISBN 978-2-940631-03-2
76 OECD, 2018. Is the Last Mile the Longest? Economic Gains from Gender Equality in Nordic Countries.
OECD. ISBN 978-92-64-30003-3.
23
state that the Educational Attainment gap is for many countries closed already, or they are about to close the difference soon. Moreover, many studies show that women outperform men at the bachelor’s and master’s and are better in catching up in doctoral degrees.77
On average, only 6,5 % of CEOs in the largest nationally registered companies are women.
EIGE posts a proportion of 27,6 % women among members of the highest-decision making body of the largest nationally registered companies. Senior executives and non-executive directors then count 16,6 % and 29,9 %. These numbers clearly report that even though women surpass men in education and have the same opportunities for gaining enough knowledge, they are strongly underrepresented on company boards and senior management.
On the other hand, the number of women in lower and middle management positions is generally equal or even higher than the proportion of men. Albeit, there are some changes in improvement “at the top” (CEOs, general managers, company presidents, board members, board chairpersons, etc.), they have been remarkably slow.78
The previous findings match well with UNESCO’s World Atlas on Gender Equality, which proposes: "The last four decades have brought a major expansion of higher education in every region of the world, and women have been the principal beneficiaries in all regions. Female enrolment at the tertiary level has grown almost twice as fast as that of men over the last four decades for reasons that include social mobility, enhanced income potential, and international pressure to narrow the gender gap. Nevertheless, enhanced access to higher education by women has not always translated into enhanced career opportunities, including the opportunity to use their doctorates in the field of research.”79 The gap between female graduates and the actual number of them being in the decision-making process raises many questions: exact figures, and more details are displayed in the following section.
77 WIRTH-DOMINICÉ, Linda, and INTERNATIONALES ARBEITSAMT (eds.), 2015. Women in business and management: gaining momentum; global report. Geneva: Internat. Labour Organisation. ISBN 978-92-2- 128873-2.
78 EUROPEAN COMMISSION and DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR JUSTICE AND CONSUMERS, 2019.
2019 report on equality between women and men in the EU. [online]. [Accessed 31 March 2020]. ISBN 978-92- 76-00027-3. Available from:
http://publications.europa.eu/publication/manifestation_identifier/PUB_DSAU19001ENN
79 WIRTH-DOMINICÉ, Linda, and INTERNATIONALES ARBEITSAMT (eds.), 2015. Women in business and management: gaining momentum; global report. Geneva: Internat. Labour Organisation. ISBN 978-92-2- 128873-2.
24 2.1.1. Women on company boards
Numerous individuals monitor collectively the number of women chairs on boards, specifically those of the largest corporations. Many studies noted enhanced business performance and economic growth with less gender inequality on their boards.80 Despite slight changes in the improvement of taking women in boards and in top management positions, it still seems to be a challenge for all EU members. As mentioned before, there is evidence about the abyss between female graduates and their actual number “at the top” positions. In October 2018, women proportion on the boards of the largest publicly listed companies conducted by the European Institute for Gender Equality registered 26,7 % overall demonstrated on Graph 5.
40 % gender balance zone symbolizes objective for non-executive female members on boards in publicly listed companies established by the European Commission, which should have been accomplished by this year. This goal promotes the potential of gender-equal companies and their innovative and economic improvement.81
Graph 6: Proportion of women on the boards of the largest publicly listed companiesiii in the EU, 2020
Source: EUROPEAN INSTITUTE FOR GENDER EQUALITY, 2020. Indicator: Largest listed companies: presidents, board members, and employee representatives | Gender Statistics Database. [online]. 2020. [Accessed 8 June 2020]. Available from:
https://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/dgs/indicator/wmidm_bus_bus__wmid_comp_compbm; Graph: personal collecting
80 WIRTH-DOMINICÉ, Linda, and INTERNATIONALES ARBEITSAMT (eds.), 2015. Women in business and management: gaining momentum; global report. Geneva: Internat. Labour Organisation. ISBN 978-92-2- 128873-2.
81 EPWS, 2012. European Commission proposes 40% objective for Women on Boards • European Platform of Women Scientists EPWS. European Platform of Women Scientists EPWS [online]. 19 November 2012.
[Accessed 1 April 2020]. Available from: https://epws.org/european-commission-proposes-40-objective-for- women-on-boards/
25
Bar charts in Graph 6 demonstrate the proportion of women in EU and non-EU EAA countries working as board members. Furthermore, for illustration, the gender balance zone represents the minimum voluntary target of 40 % EU quota legislation of each gender in non-executive positions on board, which should have been met by this year. This is also marked in the graph.82 Quotas are already in place in many countries to increase women's proportion on company boards. Statutory target symbolizes 40 % for France and Norway, 33 % for Belgium, Italy, and Portugal, lastly, 30 % for Germany and Austria.83
France is the only country in the EU with more than 40 % of women's representation in management boards, followed by Nordic leaders such as Island (non-Es), Norway (non-EU), and Sweden, specifically with 38,60 % staying above the EU average of 29,20 %. Under the term of EEA countries (non-EU), are included Iceland, Norway, Lichtenstein, and Switzerland, which are not a part of the EU, but they are part of the EU's single market.84
The Czech Republic reaches only 18,5 %, which is not even half of the EU average. Since 2010 there has been no denoting progress in the Czech Republic (less than 6 %) Sweden has risen by 12 % as well as a 17 % rise in the EU average in total.85 Changes incurred by laid-down female quotas are instructional. In the other 13 countries, there are different measures and restrictions to state-owned companies, including Sweden. Contrariwise, the Czech government and ten other countries, mostly those with the smallest percentages, didn’t make any movement to progress.
According to the European Commission Database, nineteen countries in the EU, the Czech Republic included, did not have any women as a CEO among the largest public companies.
Women still need to face the glass ceiling obstacle, and only a few women are capable of reaching the top; one out of ten companies can pride themselves on having a female CEO or
82 VELKOVA, IRINA, 2015. Quotas for women on corporate boards: The call for change in Europe. ANCHOR ACADEMIC PUBLISHING. ISBN 978-3-95489-423-9.
83 WIRTH-DOMINICÉ, Linda, and INTERNATIONALES ARBEITSAMT (eds.), 2015. Women in business and management: gaining momentum ; global report. Geneva: Internat. Labour Organisation. ISBN 978-92-2- 128873-2.
84 GOVERNMENT DIGITAL SERVICE UK, [no date]. Countries in the EU and EEA. GOV.UK [online].
[Accessed 8 June 2020]. Available from: https://www.gov.uk/eu-eea
85 EUROPEAN INSTITUTE FOR GENDER EQUALITY, 2010. Indicator: Largest listed companies:
presidents, board members, and employee representatives | Gender Statistics Database. European Institute for Gender Equality [online]. 2010. [Accessed 8 June 2020]. Available from: https://eige.europa.eu/gender- statistics/dgs/indicator/wmidm_bus_bus__wmid_comp_compbm
26
company president.86 “The larger the firm, the fewer the women at the top.”87 An increasing number of women in senior management positions builds a pool of talent and supports creativity, critical thinking, and diverse ideas from other perspectives.88
2.1.2. Women in the public sector
Women's active engagement in parliament and governments is momentous for improving the quality and accountability of democracies, wide-angle objective view, and impact of policy- making.89 Due to governmental policies on equality and measures, in many cases, various forms of quotas have been promoted more in the public sector than in senior management, and the average is therefore a bit higher.
Graph 7: Proportion of women in the single/lower houses of the national parliaments
Source: EIGE, 2020. Browse Gender Statistics | Gender Statistics Database. European Institute for Gender Equality [online].
2020. [Accessed 1 April 2020]. Available from: https://eige.europa.eu/gender-statistics/dgs; Graph: personal collecting
86 EUROPEAN COMMISSION and DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR JUSTICE AND CONSUMERS, 2019.
2019 report on equality between women and men in the EU. [online]. [Accessed 1 June 2020]. ISBN 978-92-76- 00027-3. Available from:
http://publications.europa.eu/publication/manifestation_identifier/PUB_DSAU19001ENN
87 WIRTH-DOMINICÉ, Linda, and INTERNATIONALES ARBEITSAMT (eds.), 2015. Women in business and management: gaining momentum; global report. Geneva: Internat. Labour Organisation. ISBN 978-92-2- 128873-2., P.27
88 WIRTH-DOMINICÉ, Linda, and INTERNATIONALES ARBEITSAMT (eds.), 2015. Women in business and management: gaining momentum; global report. Geneva: Internat. Labour Organisation. ISBN 978-92-2- 128873-2.
89 EUROPEAN COMMISSION and DIRECTORATE-GENERAL FOR JUSTICE AND CONSUMERS, 2019.
2019 report on equality between women and men in the EU. ISBN 978-92-76-00027-3.
