Prague University of Economics and Business
Master's Thesis
2021 Natálie Hofmanová
Prague University of Economics and Business Faculty of Business Administration
Master's Field: International management
Title of the Master's Thesis:
Czech Consumers' Perceptions of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising
Author: Bc. Natálie Hofmanová
Supervisor: doc. Ing. Miroslav Karlíček, Ph.D.
D e c l a r a t i o n o f A u t h e n t i c i t y
I hereby declare that the Master's Thesis presented herein is my own work, or fully and specifically acknowledged wherever adapted from
other sources. This work has not been published or submitted elsewhere for the requirement of a degree programme.
Prague, May 12, 2021 Signature:
Title of the Master's Thesis:
Czech Consumers' Perceptions of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising
Abstract:
The purpose of this thesis is to examine the Czech consumers' perceptions of traditional and counter-gender stereotypes in advertising. The study was conducted using a qualitative research technique. The selection of the respondents was set to cover men and women, and also younger (below 25 years old) and older (above 55 years old) consumers. In total, 14 in-depth interviews were performed, and the data were analysed using thematic analysis. Based on our results, three main areas of findings emerged. Firstly, it was revealed that the consumer's sensitivity level to gender stereotypes in advertising depends on whether the gender stereotype addresses the same gender as that of the recipient, as well as on whether the consumer takes a 'modern' or 'traditional' approach to gender roles in society. Secondly, the research showed that Czech consumers might be less sensitive to gender stereotypes in advertising due to the liberal nature of the local market. Lastly, it was found that humour may have the potential to reduce the level of offensiveness of traditional gender stereotypes in advertising. These findings are illustrated by a model of consumers' perceptions of gender stereotypes in advertising, determining the degree of sensitivity to these depictions.
Key words:
advertising, gender stereotypes, traditional gender stereotypes, counter-gender stereotypes, perception
Acknowledgements:
Above all, I would like to thank Mr doc. Ing. Miroslav Karlíček, Ph.D.
I am delighted this thesis could be written under his guidance because his helpfulness, valuable advice and kind attitude made the whole experience of writing
truly enjoyable. Additionally, I would also like to thank all the respondents who took part in the research for their time and willingness to participate in the study.
Contents
1. Introduction ... 8
2. Literature Review ... 10
2.1. Key Terms ... 10
2.1.1. Advertising ... 11
2.1.2. Sex and Gender ... 11
2.1.3. Gender Stereotypes ... 12
2.1.4. Sexual Objectification ... 12
2.2. The Use of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising ... 13
2.2.1. The Evolution of Gender Portrayal in Advertising ... 13
2.2.2. Gender Stereotypes in Advertising Today ... 14
2.2.3. Consumers' Responses to Gender Stereotypes in Advertising ... 17
2.2.4. Role of Humour ... 19
2.3. The Effects of Gender Stereotypes ... 19
2.3.1. Mirror vs. Mold View ... 19
2.3.2. Consequences of Portraying Gender stereotypes in Advertising ... 20
2.4. Advertisers' Contemporary Approach to Gender Stereotypes ... 22
2.4.1. Case Studies on Advertisement Portraying Gender Stereotypes... 22
2.5. Regulation of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising in the Czech Republic ... 27
2.5.1. Government Regulation ... 28
2.5.2. Self-regulation and Activities of Non-governmental Organisations ... 29
2.6. Summary of the Literature Review ... 31
3. Methodology ... 33
3.1. Research Method ... 33
3.2. Interview Guide ... 34
3.4. Sample ... 36
3.4. Analysis Approach ... 38
3.5. Research Ethics ... 38
3.6. Context of the Study ... 39
4. Field Research ... 43
4.1. The General Knowledge ... 43
4.1.1. Understanding of the Concept ... 43
4.1.2. Associations with Traditional Gender Stereotypes ... 44
4.1.3. Sentiments Towards Traditional Gender Stereotypes ... 45
4.2. Perceptions of Traditional Gender Stereotypes in Advertising ... 47
4.2.1. The Perceived Occurrence ... 47
4.2.2. Potential Effects on Individuals ... 48
4.2.3. Attitudes Towards Traditional Gender Stereotypes in Advertising ... 52
4.2.4. Observed Trends ... 58
4.3. Perceptions of Counter-gender Stereotypes in Advertising ... 60
4.3.1. The Perceived Occurrence ... 60
4.3.2. Attitudes Towards Counter-gender Stereotypes in Advertising ... 62
4.3.3. Observed Trends ... 66
4.4. Regulation of Traditional Gender Stereotypes in Advertising ... 68
4.4.1. Observed Trends ... 71
4.5. Specifics of the Czech Market ... 72
5. Discussion ... 76
6. Conclusion ... 81
6.1. Limitations ... 83
6.2. Implications ... 84
6.3. Suggestions for Future Research ... 85
Sources ... 86
List of Images ... 99
List of Tables ... 99
Appendix ... 100
Appendix I: Interview Guide ... 100
Appendix II: Transcript of the Interview (Ema, 25) ... 110
1. Introduction
The topic of gender portrayal in advertising is more vibrant today than ever before. This opening chapter introduces the reader to this issue and justifies the reason for this work. It also states the aim of this thesis, along with the research questions. The chapter concludes by outlining the structure of this work.
Advertising billboards, TV spots, radio spots, social media promotion and much more are all around us. While in 2007, according to a market research agency Yankelovich, a modern person living in a city saw up to 5,000 advertising messages a day (The New York Times, 2007), today it can be as many as 10,000 (PPC Protect, 2021).
There are two different views on the extent to which advertising has the power to influence the social and psychological attitudes of the recipient. The first, 'Mirror' view, argues that advertising only reflects beliefs already present in society; in other words, 'mirrors' them (Holbrook, 1987; Pollay, 1987). The other view says that advertising has a direct influence on shaping the social and psychological attitudes of its recipient. This view is described as 'Mold'. Some authors argue that the truth lies in between (Albers- Miller & Gelb, 1996; Grau & Zotos, 2016) and Antoniou and Akrivos (2020) even suggest this distinction between 'mirror' and 'mold' argument is no longer valid because advertising has become an integral part of our everyday life.
This thesis examines the stereotypical portrayal of men and women in advertising, which, according to Eisend et al. (2019), is prevalent. The first study on this issue was conducted in 1972 by Dominick and Rauch, and since then, academics have been addressing this matter. As reported by Eisend et al. (2019, p. 197), "the topic is important because using gender roles in advertising can increase advertising performance (i.e., lead to better brand evaluations and sales), but can also cause undesirable effects for a society." According to Bivins (2018), gender stereotypes in advertising have the power to reinforce certain attitudes and behaviours. As Eisend (2010) further reveals, these depictions can have a positive or a negative effect on their recipient and ultimately lead to a positive or a negative perception of the ad as such.
Today, the issue of portraying men and women in advertising seems to be more vibrant than ever. This is largely driven by heated debates around gender equality, fueled by
movements such as #metoo, #timesup and #balancetonporc, occurring mainly in Western countries.
In the Czech Republic, these debates are not yet as heated as in the West, which could result in Czech consumers looking at this issue differently than Western consumers.
Academic literature does not yet provide insight into how the Czech consumer views gender stereotypes in advertising. This work is aimed to contribute to the closure of this research gap. Therefore, the goal of this thesis was set: 'to examine the Czech consumers' perceptions of traditional and counter-gender stereotypes in advertising.' Specifically, three sub-research questions were identified: 1) How are traditional gender stereotypes in advertising perceived by men vs. women and younger vs. older consumers?, 2) How are counter-gender stereotypes in advertising perceived by men vs. women and younger vs. older consumers?, and 3) What are the perceptions of the regulation of traditional gender stereotypes in advertising, and what should be the ideal state according to men vs. women and younger vs. older consumers?
The thesis is divided into a theoretical and a practical part. In the theoretical part, the academic literature dealing with this matter is introduced. This part aims to review the academic literature on the subject shedding light on the issue of gender stereotypes in advertising, consumers' responses to these depictions, gender stereotypes' effects on individuals and society, companies' contemporary approach to this issue and also the regulation tackling gender stereotypes in advertising in the Czech Republic.
The practical part firstly presents the methodology that was used to conduct the research. Specifically, the chapter describes the qualitative research method of in-depth interviews, introduces the interview guide, reveals the logic behind the sample selection, outlines the analysis approach and the research ethics, and introduces the context of the study. Subsequently, the research results obtained through in-depth interviews are presented, and the answers to the research questions are sought through analysis.
2. Literature Review
Before conducting research to examine the perception of gender portrayal in advertisements by Czech consumers, it is imperative to investigate the available academic literature concerning this matter. In order to gain a comprehensive view of this topic, the following chapter addresses the depiction of gender in advertising from several perspectives. Firstly, the key terms are defined. Secondly, the chapter deals with the use of gender portrayals in advertising and the impact it has on individuals and society. Thirdly, the approach of companies to this phenomenon is assessed, and finally, the regulation of gender advertising in the Czech Republic, governmental and non-governmental, is presented.
Academics have been involved in the portrayal of gender roles in advertising for more than fifty years. The first study on the matter of gender portrayal in advertising was conducted by Dominick and Rauch (1972). Since then, the available literature dealing with this issue has grown by other studies that examined the topic across different media types, ranging from print, radio and television to Internet and social networks that have gained significant popularity in recent years (e.g. Aramendia-Muneta et al., 2020; Ford et al., 1998; Matthes et al., 2016; Ter Bogt et al., 2010; Verhellen et al., 2016; Wiles et al., 1995).
To find the most relevant literature, keyword searches ('gender role' or 'sex role', 'stereotyp*' or 'portrayal', and 'advertis*') were used on several databases (e.g. Google Scholar, ProQuest, ProQuest Ebook Central, EBSCO). Following this approach, the literature review should cover the basis for the theoretical anchoring of the investigated issue and lay the foundation for implementing our own research.
2.1. Key Terms
The following paragraphs present the key terminology: advertising, sex and gender, gender stereotypes and sexual objectification. These terms are essential to define as they are central to the topics discussed in this chapter.
2.1.1. Advertising
Advertising is one of the forms of marketing communication that aims to influence consumer behaviour and arouse interest in buying a particular product or service (Blair et al., 2006). The purpose of advertising is to disseminate information to the target group via a wide range of media (e.g., television, radio, print media, billboards or the Internet) (American Marketing Association, 2021). According to the American Marketing Association (2021), there are several types of advertising. The first is Traditional advertising, which refers to ads in traditional print and broadcast media such as newspaper ads and TV and radio commercials. Another type is Retail Advertising referring to ads within stores. Increasingly popular is Online Advertising used to promote products and services online through ads in search engines, banners, websites, or social media. Pay Per Click (PPC) Advertising is another form, which provides traffic to websites through banners placed on the Internet, where advertisers pay only when the user clicks on their advertisement. Mobile Advertising refers to banners and click-to-call ads featured on mobile phones, and the last type is Outdoor Advertising, promoting products and services through billboards and banners on the outside of buildings and branded vehicles (American Marketing Association, 2021).
2.1.2. Sex and Gender
The term 'gender' was introduced into sociology by the feminist sociologist Anne Oakley in 1972, who distinguished gender and sex, which was necessary for further study of female and male roles. According to this division, 'sex' refers to biological and physiological characteristics that define 'male' and 'female', such as the visible difference in genitalia (Oakley, 1972). 'Gender' is a term that refers to the differences between men and women that are created culturally, as opposed to biological differences (Oakley, 1972). It represents a social construct, masculine or feminine behaviour developed during socialisation (Oakley, 1972).
Moreover, while classifying people as male or female can be made on a biological basis, gender classification might be more problematic, as it is linked to the matter of culture and thus can vary across time and place (Oakley, 1972). In addition, scientific, legal, medical, and psychological systems are increasingly recognising the existence of genders outside the male-female binary system and confirming that gender represents a whole range of gender identities (Richards et al., 2016). While the majority of people identify their gender as either 'men' or 'women', a small percentage of people classify themselves as 'non-binary' – neither men nor women, both at one time, different gender at different times, or as no gender at all (Harper, 2007; Richards &
Baker, 2013; Richards et al., 2016). This reveals that in addition to binary gender identities, there is also a spectrum of genders that are not entirely female or male (Antoniou & Akrivos, 2020).
2.1.3. Gender Stereotypes
One possible view of how stereotypes can be explained is through the schema theory.
According to this concept, each new information is processed with respect to the recipient's existing scheme (Neisser, 1976), which is a cognitive structure of associations that organises the recipient's incoming information into comprehensible categories (Bem, 1981). Such information processing is a natural process of human beings (Widmayer, 2004), which helps them to guide their perception and navigate themselves better in a vast amount of information (Bem, 1981).
Stereotypes are defined as a set of concepts that arise in a person's consciousness when he thinks of a particular social group (Vinacke, 1957). The stereotyping process is further described as "the tendency to attribute generalised and simplified characteristics to groups of people in the form of verbal labels" (Vinacke, 1949, p. 265). Although stereotypes usually have a negative connotation, some stereotypes are considered positive. They are defined as positive attributes assigned to a certain social group (e.g., better math ability or better athletic ability) (Czopp, 2015).
Gender stereotypes are widely shared beliefs of typically masculine and feminine characteristics (Ashmore & Del Boca, 1981). They determine the roles of men and women, their positions, interactions, and communication in society. According to the theory of social roles, gender stereotyping has its foundation in the traditional division of male and female roles, representing the man as the breadwinner and the woman as a housekeeper (Eagly et al., 2000). However, as the cultural environment influences gender, the stereotypes may also vary across different cultures (Eisend, 2010).
2.1.4. Sexual Objectification
According to objectification theory (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997), objectification in a broader sense means treating a person as a commodity or an object, regardless of his or her personality or dignity. Sexual objectification occurs when a person is judged solely on the basis of his appearance, sexual appeal, or behaviour, disregarding any other characteristics (American Psychological Association, 2007). It considers a person as a fragmented "collection of sexual body parts or functions" (Bartky, 1990, p.
2) rather than an individual personality. Based on the objectification theory, media plays a crucial role in disseminating sexualised images and contributing to their rapid reproduction (American Psychological Association, 2007; Gramazio et al., 2020).
Sexual objectification is often considered to be one of the categories representing gender stereotypes (e.g., Domenech-Rodriguez, 2003; Hatzithomas et al., 2016;
Jones & Reid, 2003; The Advertising Standards Authority, 2017; Tsichla, 2020) and applies to anyone (American Psychological Association, 2007).
2.2. The Use of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising
Gender stereotypes in advertising are prevalent (Eisend, 2010). Their use offers advertisers many advantages: stereotypes are concise and allow the recipient to decode the message quickly and clearly (Pollay, 1986), and they also simplify the cognitive process of consumers, which prevents them from distraction and help them to focus on the brand message (Windels, 2016). Under certain circumstances, stereotypes may be desirable; however, they are likely to become problematic if associated solely with one gender (The Advertising Standards Authority, 2020) and portray it in a distorted fashion (Tsichla, 2020). The following paragraphs present the evolution of gender portrayals in advertising from the 1970s to 2021: an overview of gender stereotypes that are still prevalent in today's advertisement, the consequences such illustrations have on individuals and society, and the contemporary approach of companies to gender stereotypes in their advertising.
2.2.1. The Evolution of Gender Portrayal in Advertising
The early literature was stimulated by the rise of feminism, beliefs challenging traditional male and female roles, and also emerging questions concerning the ethical aspect of female portrayal in media (Grau & Zotos, 2016). Antoniou & Akrivos (2020) suggest that women were in this setting portrayed as subordinate to men, and Tsichla (2020) further ads that women were depicted as dependent on men's protection, less intellectually capable, rather unable to solve more complex tasks, contented with the role of housewives and caring mothers, or sexualised. In contrast, men were, according to Tsichla (2020), depicted as strong, independent individuals, usually situated in a professional or outdoor environment. In the mid-1980s, feminist movements began to point out that advertising contributes to the spread of stereotypical gender roles and reinforces the patriarchal hierarchy in society (Friedan, 2010). Moreover, while the western, white, middle-class women were, until then, in the centre of the feminists' concerns, the interest of feminists had expanded to the issue of the male gender, and also the first steps towards a closer examination of non-binary gender emerged (Bettany et al., 2010). Since the late 1980s, advertisers started to reflect on the growing feminist movement in their advertising activities and initiated to address female portrayal in advertising (Goldman, 2005). As a reaction to this development, marketing and consumer disciplines began to research a more inclusive approach to advertising, taking into account the feminists' urge to change the stereotypical, sexualised, and unrealistic portrayals of women in the ads (Antoniou &
Akrivos, 2020; Bettany et al., 2010). In connection with the pursuit of a more inclusive approach, some advertisers began to portray a professionally successful, assertive woman, and conversely, a man in the household and as a sexual object (Furnham &
Skae, 1997).
Today, fifty years after the first research on gender portrayal in advertising, the topic seems more vibrant than ever. The #MeToo movement, which began its life as a hashtag in 2017, contributed significantly to the debate. The affair of American film producer Harvey Weinstein, who sexually harassed young actresses, brought a new wind to discussions on gender portrayal, objectification and gender equality (Farrow, 2017). The #MeToo movement was soon followed by others, such as #TimesUp or
#BalanceTonPorc, which urged public and private spheres (Tsichla, 2020).
Research findings tackling the issue of gender stereotypes in advertising often differ on whether there are more gender stereotypes or less in today's advertisement. Some authors state that the degree of stereotyping of gender roles in advertising is gradually decreasing (e.g. Eisend et al., 2019; Furnham & Paltzer, 2010; Wolin, 2003). However, according to Furnham & Mak (1999) and Furnham & Paltzer (2010), this is only evident in Western societies. In contrast, other studies show that not only is the situation not improving but that stereotypical portrayals of both men and women are becoming increasingly common in the industry (e.g., Ganahl et al., 2003; Kantar, 2019; Milner &
Higgs, 2004) and their list is longer than before (Antoniou & Akrivos, 2020). This might be largely influenced by digitisation and, above all, the Internet, which offers a wide range of social media platforms that can spread potentially harmful gender stereotypes to the masses in a matter of seconds (Böhmer & Griese, 2021; Gauntlett, 2008). There might be two primary reasons why academic literature offers different findings regarding the extent and form of gender stereotypes in advertising. The first reason may be the lack of quantitative data on changes in gender stereotypes in advertising.
The second might be the variability of gender stereotypes regarding the cultural context in which they were assessed (Eisend, 2010). Taking these two insights into account, the research findings might differ across time and place.
Moreover, some authors suggest that stereotypical depictions of gender roles in today's advertising do not reflect current gender roles in society (e.g., Dobscha &
Knudsen, 2019; Eisend, 2010; Knoll et al., 2011; Tsichla et al., 2016). For example, according to Dobscha & Knudsen (2019), gender roles have evolved, yet contemporary advertisers often cling to use stereotypical gender portrayals that are no longer adapted to the current social climate. Frunza (2016) specifies these representations as hyper-sexualisation, objectification, and the enforcement of rigid gender roles.
2.2.2. Gender Stereotypes in Advertising Today
In today's advertising landscape, gender bias remains, and the depiction of traditional gender roles is not uncommon (Antoniou, A., & Akrivos, 2020; Kumari & Shivani, 2012;
Marshall et al., 2014). Women are often situated in the home environment rather than the professional environment (Tartaglia & Rollero, 2015; Verhellen et al., 2016), they are more likely to be presented as amiable and caring (Kantar, 2019; Kyrousi et al.,
2016) as well as in a dependent role (Fowler & Thomas, 2015; Grau & Zotos, 2016), younger and as a symbol of attraction (Kyrousi, Panigyrakis, & Panopoulos, 2016;
Sheehan 2014). Men, on the other hand, are portrayed more frequently in a professional environment (Fowler & Thomas, 2015; Grau & Zotos, 2016; Verhellen, Dens, & De Pelsmacker, 2016), represented by older figures (Verhellen et al., 2016), with assigned attributes such as smart, mature, and independent (Prieler, Ivanov, &
Hagiwara, 2015, Kantar, 2019). In addition to the uneven depictions of gender, there is also unequal advertising space given to both sexes. According to Kantar (2019), men are given four times more screen time in advertising than women, and their voices are heard more often than women's, particularly when a scientific argument is presented (Appel & Weber, 2017). In addition, when a woman is being portrayed in an ad, a man is mostly used for the voice-over-message (Appel & Weber, 2017; Kantar, 2019; Sandhu, 2019).
Despite persistent traditional stereotypes, the portrayals of men and women in advertising have likewise evolved (Aramendia-Muneta; 2020, Middleton et al., 2020).
Traditional roles are being challenged by new empowerment messaging described as 'femvertising' and 'dadvertising' (Åkestam et al., 2017; Leader, 2019). Femvertising campaigns, such as #GirlsCan from Cover girl, #SpeakBeautiful from Dove, or
#LikeAGirl from Always present women as the main protagonists, put them in the foreground and centre of the action and depicts them in authentic situations that are in conflict with gender stereotypes (Becker-Herby, 2016). Dadvertising, in contrast, assigns roles to men that have been historically referred to as female (Leader, 2019).
Men presented in dadvertising campaigns are caring partners who are attentive and emotionally vulnerable (Leader, 2019).
Alongside the traditional depictions, women today are being portrayed as bold, strong, assertive, active, self-confident, empowered, and sexually powerful, and men are depicted as caring fathers and loving husbands (Barry, 2014; Fowler & Thomas, 2015;
Kapoor et al., 2019; Kohrs et al., 2020). However, some authors argue that the new portrayals have not removed existing stereotypes but instead created a new set of stereotypes, such as a 'superwoman' and a strong, muscular man taking care of the household (Baxter et al., 2016; Tsichla, 2020). In relation to that, a study by Middleton et al. (2020) has introduced new female stereotype categories: 'trophy' and 'sexually powerful'. A trophy represents a woman that is a man's accessory due to her physical attractiveness (Middleton et al., 2020). This portrayal places the woman in a submissive role dependent on a man's materialistic support, for which she, in turn, serves as the man's accessory (Middleton et al., 2020). Sexually powerful stereotype depicts a confident, assertive woman who gets what she wants, is aware of her sex appeal and knows how to use it (Middleton et al., 2020).
The list of prevalent gender stereotypes is long. A longitudinal analysis by Hatzithomas et al. (2016) studying gender portrayal in Super Bowl commercials proposes an overview of typical stereotypes of men and women in advertising (see Table 1 and
Table 2). The list of female stereotypes is further extended by two new categories, 'trophy' and 'sexually powerful', defined by Middleton et al. (2020).
Table 1 Typical female stereotypes, adapted from Hatzithomas et al., 2016;
Middleton et al., 2020 Female Stereotype Description
Dependency
Dependent on male's protection In need of reassurance
Making unimportant decisions
Housewife
Women's place is in the home Primary role is to be a good wife Concerned with tasks of housekeeping
Women concerned with physical attractiveness
To appear more appealing (e.g., youthful)
Concerned with cosmetics and jewellery products Concerned with fashion
Women as sex objects
Sex is related to product Sex is unrelated to product Women in non-
traditional activities
Engaged in activities outside the home (e.g., buying a car) Engaged in sports (e.g., golf, tennis, skiing, swimming)
Career-oriented
Professional occupation Entertainer
Non-professional (e.g., clerical, bank teller) Voice of authority The expert
Neutral Woman shown as equal to man
Trophy Man's accessory
Sexually powerful Confident, assertive woman, aware of her sex appeal None of the above
category
Table 2 Typical male stereotypes, adapted from Hatzithomas et al., 2016 Male Stereotype Description
The theme of sex appeal
Macho man (e.g., physical strength, prowess, 'cool') Womaniser (e.g., physical attractiveness, active seeker)
Dominant over women
Man protects woman Man is in control
Man offers reassurance to woman
Authority figure (product
representative)
Provides the expertise (i.e., the expert) Celebrity
Voice of authority
Family man
Activities at home Conventional activities
Frustrated male
Frustrated in work Frustrated in life
Activities and life outside the home
Concerned about his own needs
Shown in activities and sports (e.g., golf, hunting) Seeking gratification outside the home
Career-oriented Professional career orientation
Non-traditional role Showing men in non-traditional activities (e.g., washing dishes, changing baby's clothes)
Neutral Man shown as equal to woman None of the above
category
2.2.3. Consumers' Responses to Gender Stereotypes in Advertising
Several authors suggest that the perception of gender stereotypes in advertising differs among men and women and is also influenced by the age of the consumer (DeYoung and Crane, 1992; Eisend et al., 2014; Ford et al., 1997; Reichert et al., 2007; Jones and Reid 2010; Maciejewski, 2004; Manceau and Tissier-Desbordes, 2006;
Odekerken-Schroeder et al., 2002; Wyllie et al., 2014).
Kolman & Tkalac Verčić (2012) state that the differences in the perception of gender stereotypes between male and female are significant. Theodoridis et al. (2013) further support this argument and reveal that women tend to be more sensitive to the stereotypical gender depictions in advertising than men. Eisend et al. (2014) likewise
argue that gender stereotypes in advertising are more likely to be evaluated more negatively by women, who tend to find such ads less credible. According to Huhmann et al. (2016), women are also more likely to show a lower purchase intention towards advertising portraying female in an offensive way. Men, in contrast, tend to react less negatively to gender stereotypes in advertising (Kolman & Tkalac Verčić, 2012) and are less likely to find the ad sexist (Rossi and Rossi, 1985). The use of sex appeal in advertisement and the consumers' perception was a concern of several studies.
LaTour & Henthorne (1994) and Prakash (1992) revealed that even though both genders raise ethical concerns regarding the use of sexualisation in ads, men tend to evaluate sexual appeals more positively than women (Huhmann & Limbu, 2016).
Similarly, Wyllie et al. (2014) identified lower effectiveness of sexually explicit ads among female respondents than males.
An interesting conclusion was further drawn by several studies stating that both sexes are likely to positively evaluate a portrayal of the opposite sex in advertising (LaTour, 1990; Grazer and Keesling, 1995; Saad, 2004). Other studies, however, revealed that women prefer advertising portraying female characters more than male (Reichert et al., 2007; Dudley, 1999). Dutta-Bergman (2006) found that based on gender, it is possible to evaluate the likelihood of the level of support for the regulation of advertising. The author reveals that women favour advertisement regulation more than men (Dutta-Bergman, 2006). Similarly, Shavitt et al. (1998) also found that women support advertising regulation more than men.
The literature dealing with the attitudes towards gender stereotypes in advertisement among various age groups is limited and offers multiple and contradicting findings.
Theodoridis et al. (2013) found that older consumers' attitudes towards gender stereotypes in advertising tend to be more extreme than the attitudes of younger consumers. They further revealed that older women react to the stereotypical depictions more negatively than older men (Theodoridis et al., 2013). Younger consumers, in contrast, showed a lower level of difference in terms of their attitudes towards stereotypical portrayals (Theodoridis et al., 2013).
Kolman & Tkalac Verčić (2012) concluded that the level of offensiveness caused by stereotypical depictions of gender in advertising is lower for older consumers than younger ones. However, a study by Van Hellemont & Van den Bulck (2012) came to a different conclusion arguing that younger consumers react less negatively to offensive advertising than older consumers. Furthermore, Dutta-Bergman (2006) found that older consumers show a higher level of support for advertising regulation. Huhmann &
Limbu (2016), in contrast to the previous findings, revealed that there are no differences among different age groups in terms of their attitudes towards gender stereotypes in advertising.
2.2.4. Role of Humour
According to Eisend et al. (2014), gender stereotypes in advertising have often historically been associated with humour, which has the effect of improving the recipient's perception of advertising and makes such an ad more effective. This is further supported by the conclusions of several studies, according to which the presence of humour in the received information has a positive impact on the recipient's reaction (e.g., Cline et al., 2007; Eisend, 2009; Zinkhan and Gelb, 1987). In addition, as revealed by Duncan and Nelson (1985), the presence of humour in advertising has the power to distract attention from negatively perceived content and induce the recipient to focus on the humourous side of the ad. While advertising might be perceived by the recipient as offensive or inappropriate, the presence of humour may alleviate such negative perceptions, as stated by a study by Groz and Cuesta (2011).
A study by Kantar (2019) also showed that humour improves the attitudes towards the advertising by both men and women, furthermore even better than any other characteristic of the ad.
As concluded by Eisend et al. (2014), perceptions of gender-stereotyped ads using humour differ between women and men. According to the same authors, women respond to humour in such advertisements more intensely than men and evaluate it more positively. This is especially valid in terms of non-traditional gender stereotypes in advertising (Eisend et al., 2014).
2.3. The Effects of Gender Stereotypes
The social and cultural influence of stereotypes on the individual and society is a concern of scholars across a wide range of disciplines, and gender stands at the centre of this discussion (e.g., Agars, 2004; Chatard et al., 2007; Gadassi & Gati, 2009;
Jenkins, 2008). Several studies proved the impact of gender stereotypes in advertising on men and women (e.g., Aramendia-Muneta et al., 2020; Eisend et al., 2019; Moss- Racusin et al., 2015). However, the findings on the specific impacts and their extent differ (Eisend et al., 2019). Historically, the academic discussion on these effects was held between two sides, presenting a different perspective: 'mirror' and 'mold' (Pollay, 1987). The following paragraphs explain these views in more detail, followed by the specific effects of gender stereotypes on individuals.
2.3.1. Mirror vs. Mold View
The 'mirror' argument stands for the opinion that gender roles in advertising represent cultural expectations from gender, which are given by socio-economic and political influences (Holbrook, 1987; Pollay, 1987). According to this theory, the impact of
advertising on individuals and society is thus negligible because advertising only 'mirrors' the beliefs that are already prevailed in society (Holbrook, 1987). In contrast, the 'mold' argument posits that advertising has the power to influence the social and psychological attitudes of the recipient (Pollay, 1987). In line with this view, advertising would have a considerable impact on creating gender stereotypes and their reinforcement in society (Pollay, 1987).
The follow-up academic literature brought supportive arguments for both perspectives.
A study by Plakoyiannaki et al. (2008) concluded that advertising influences the lifestyle and self-presentation of individuals, which forms their perception of gender roles in society. A meta-analysis by Eisend (2010) supported the 'mirror' argument. It stated that stereotypical portrayals of genders in advertising are more likely to be influenced by gender equality in society rather than vice versa. Other studies, however, show that the truth might lie somewhere in between, and while advertising reflects values and cultural expectations towards gender, it also contributes to shaping these expectations (Albers-Miller & Gelb, 1996; Grau & Zotos, 2016). The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade (2015), in its Methodological Information No. 12/2015 on the Recognition of Sexism in Advertising, states, "When evaluating advertising, it must be borne in mind that advertising not only reflects social reality, but also can shape and shape it to some extent, and therefore it is important that it presents only what is socially desirable, i.e. what is not in contrary to good morals" (p. 3). Antoniou and Akrivos (2020) go even further and argue that this distinction between 'mirror' and 'mold' argument is no longer relevant because advertising has become an integral part of our everyday life.
2.3.2. Consequences of Portraying Gender stereotypes in Advertising
Drawing on the conclusion that advertising reflects the values and attitudes that are rooted in society but also helps shape them implies that what people see or hear in advertising influences their opinions, values, attitudes, and behaviour. As such, it can contribute not only to the perception of products and brands but also to the long-term beliefs and values about individuals and groups. According to the Advertising Authority (2017), stereotypes in advertising might lead to a reinforcement of stereotypical portrayal of gender, and to a greater or lesser extent also to psychological, physical, and social harm of individuals or groups. The literature reveals three consequential adverse effects which might result from gender stereotyping.
Firstly, stereotypes can lead to limited life opportunities (The Advertising Standards Authority, 2017; Aramendia-Muneta, 2020; Davies et al., 2002; Eisend, 2010; Lewis, 2005; Yoder, 2008), which is an effect described by the stereotype threat theory (Steele & Aronson, 1995). This theory argues that the influence of a stereotype has the power to impact a person's performance so that his or her results are below the level of his or her possibilities (Steele & Aronson, 1995). The theory's essential
condition is the assumption that a negative stereotype about a particular group is professed in society, and the specific individual whose performance is being monitored is aware of its existence (Steele & Aronson, 1995). For example, stereotypes describing boys as being better in math than girls can result in girls performing worse in math tests at school (Lewis, 2005). Moreover, according to the American Psychological Association (2005), such stereotypes can not only affect students' performance, but they can also influence their self-esteem and discredit them in their future careers. In general, stereotype threat can lead to a loss of motivation to engage in stereotyped domains (e.g., women may be discouraged from pursuing a career in engineering) (Appel & Weber, 2017).
Another frequently stressed negative effect refers to body and health. Women and men have been depicted in advertising as sexual objects for decades, and despite feminist movements and the progress of gender equality in society, such depictions persist.
Both male and female bodies in advertising are idealised and often do not reflect reality. The fact that men and women are exposed to such ideals daily causes them to compare themselves with these depictions, leading to dissatisfaction with their appearance, low self-esteem, anxiety, and depression (Eisend, 2010; Lorenzen, 2004). Similarly, idealised body images in advertising suggest that being unhealthily thin is normal, which can result in eating disorders and health issues (Prendergast et al., 2002). Another potentially harmful consequence of gender stereotypes regarding sexually explicit images is the threat of violence against the portrayed sex, especially women (Lanis & Covell, 1995; United Nations, 2021).
Thirdly, gender stereotypes in advertising can be found offensive (Eisend, 2010;
Antoniou & Akrivos, 2020). It is, however, important to stress that whether an ad is evaluated as offensive depends largely on its placement (Antoniou & Akrivos, 2020).
For example, a sexually explicit advertisement will undoubtedly be better received in a medium as Playboy than a scientific journal. This is particularly important for advertisers to realise in the era of the Internet. Social media allow users to distribute content to their peers quickly. Thus, the advertisement that was originally intended to be targeted at a specific group might reach recipients who may perceive it offensive (Huhmann & Limbu, 2016). This makes it much more difficult for contemporary advertisers because, despite their targeting efforts, they might lose control over who is reached by the message and whether it results in a success or a backlash (Huhmann
& Limbu, 2016).
2.4. Advertisers' Contemporary Approach to Gender Stereotypes
According to Pollay (1986), the use of gender stereotypes offers advertisers many advantages: stereotypes are concise and allow the recipient to decode the message quickly and clearly, and they also simplify the cognitive process of consumers, which prevents them from distraction. Windels (2016) further suggests that using gender stereotypes helps the recipient to focus on the brand message. Other studies, however, reveal that stereotypical portrayals of gender in advertising can also reduce the brand's preference and, subsequently, its profitability (Bellizzi & Milner, 1991;
Drake, 2017; Kantar, 2019).
Even though gender stereotypes in advertisements have the potential to harm the brand, according to Eisend et al. (2019), they are prevalent in contemporary advertising. At the same time, many advertisers have decided to challenge gender stereotypes. According to Drake (2017) and the Unstereotype Alliance (n.d. a), this approach leads to a positive impact on the brand image, brand attitudes, and purchase intention. In addition to that, in recent years, a growing number of large corporations have publicly committed to fight stereotypes in their advertisements, some of which are united in the Unstereotype Alliance convened by UN Women in 2017 (Unstereotype Alliance, n.d. b). The Unstereotype Alliance's member base currently comprises, among others, Google, Microsoft, Facebook, Procter and Gamble, Vodafone, Adobe, Twitter, Getty Images, or Bayer (Unstereotype Alliance, n.d. a).
2.4.1. Case Studies on Advertisement Portraying Gender Stereotypes
The following paragraphs present advertisements that have received significant public attention in recent years, either because they portray gender stereotypes or challenge them.
2.4.1.1. Protein World: Are you beach body ready?
In 2015, the advertisement 'Are you beach body ready?' by a supplement and diet shakes company Protein World had been much debated in the UK (see Image 1). The ad featured a young white woman with long blond hair, full lips, and a good-shaped body in a bright yellow bikini. Next to the model was a giant headline, asking, 'Are you beach body ready?' and a depicted selection of weight loss supplements. The advertisement was originally launched in the UK, where it received a critique from the public, the media, and other companies.
The Advertising Standards Authority (ASA), the UK's regulator of advertising, received nearly 400 complaints, expressing discontent about the ad objectifying women and
being socially irresponsible (The Advertising Standards Authority, 2015). Moreover, a petition for its removal was launched, signed by more than 70,000 people (Change.org, 2015). World newspapers such as Business Insider, The Guardian, and Time also joined the discussion on the advertisement's morality (Business Insider, 2015; The Guardian, 2015a; Time, 2015). Some companies positioned themselves through their own advertising, which they used to react to the ad. Dove, for example, featured a visually similar advertisement in which it presented three women of different body shapes and a headline: "Yes, we are beach body ready" (METRO.co.uk, 2015a).
Finally, the ASA evaluated the ad as "unlikely to cause serious or widespread offence"
(The Advertising Standards Authority, 2015), which received public criticism (The Guardian, 2015a).
Image 1 Protein World: Are you Beach body ready?; Source: The Guardian, 2015b; METRO.co.uk, 2015b
2.4.1.2. Mondelez UK Ltd: Philadelphia
The 2019 Philadelphia Cheese commercial was one of the first ads banned under gender stereotype rules by the ASA in the UK. The ASA's goal is to stop "limiting how people see themselves and how others see them and the life decisions they take" (The Guardian, 2019a). The ASA received 128 complaints referring to this ad as harmful for spreading gender stereotypes and portraying men as unable to take good care of children (BBC, 2019a).
The advertisement takes place in a restaurant environment. The main characters are two fathers looking after their children. First, they seem to manage the situation right, but when they suddenly see the food (sandwiches with Philadelphia cheese) on the conveyor belt, it makes them forget about the children. They are so deep in the enjoyment of the sandwiches that they do not realise their children are lost out of sight.
Fortunately, nothing terrible happened, but the advertisement ends with the fathers saying that they would rather not tell mothers (see Image 2).
Mondelez UK Ltd commented that the purpose of the advertisement was not to show fathers as incompetent but to portray men keeping care of children in a fun way. The ASA, however, recognised the advertisement as potentially harmful and banned it by arguing that "the men were portrayed as somewhat hapless and inattentive, which resulted in them being unable to care for the children effectively" (The Advertising Standards Authority, 2019).
Image 2 Mondelez: Philadelphia; Source: Youtube, 2019a 2.4.1.3. Gillette: The best men can be.
The 2019 ad 'The best men can be' by Gillette, owned by Procter and Gamble, aimed to respond to the #MeeToo movement; however, it was perceived by some consumers to promote toxic masculinity. The video updates Gillette's 30-year-old slogan 'The Best a Man Can Get' with 'The Best Men Can Be' and places it in contrast with sexism, bullying, and violence. For each of those problems, the voice-over asks: 'Is this the best thing for men?' At the end of the video, the voice-over states: "because the boys watching today will be the men tomorrow" (see Image 3).
Gillette, which has always built its advertisements on masculinity, tried to change the narrative to follow the current social climate but received a negative backlash instead (The Guardian, 2019b). While many Internet users praised the company for its progressive approach, others condemned the advertisement for promoting harmful
stereotypes, sexual predation, toxic masculinity, and men's emasculation (BBC, 2019b). Gillette reacted to the case by saying that it has succeeded to provoke a public debate, which was the ad's goal, according to them (CCN Business, 2019).
Image 3 Gillette: The best men can be.; Source: Youtube, 2019b 2.4.1.4. Zalando: Goodbye Stereotypes. Hello Zerotypes.
In 2020, Zalando, Europe's platform for fashion and lifestyle, has launched a campaign whose aim was to provoke a discussion of cultural stereotypes that persist in society and introduce a new and freer expression of oneself (Zalando, 2020). The idea behind it was rooted in research carried out in collaboration with YouGov, a British international Internet-based market research and data analytics firm. The study was conducted in selected markets and found that 89% of respondents perceive persistent stereotypes in society, while 47% are convinced that they are even more prevalent than before (Zalando, 2020).
The ad's key message was 'Goodbye stereotypes. Hello Zerotypes', and it worked with the theme of the amusement park trip, which is repeated in loops (see Image 4). First, it reflects the well-known form of an amusement park, but when the viewer returns to the same situation repeatedly, the individual characters and outfits change to non- traditional ones. The ad aimed to promote genders without stereotypes (e.g., the elderly wearing streetwear, same-sex relationships, boys wearing pink, etc.). The advertisement provoked a great debate on social networks and found supporters (e.g.,
"Nice fashion that suits young people. I like the courage and modern thinking.", "Very good advertising. Thumbs up!"), but also opponents (e.g., "Zerotypes, what kind of
politics is that? It is ridiculous how everyone wants to show how woke they are.", "I can't help myself, but this fashion makes the boys look queer and girls lesbian.") (Facebook, 2020).
Image 4 Zalando: Goodbye Stereotypes. Hello Zerotypes.; Source: Youtube, 2020
2.4.1.5. ANZ: #EqualFuture
The 2016 advertisement from ANZ bank aimed to point out the inequality of salaries between women and men. In order to demonstrate this issue, the ad used a social experiment in which it let children do various housework, for which they were promised to get paid. However, when receiving the financial reward, the children came to a surprise that the girls had been paid less than the boys. The advertisement stated:
"just like in the real world" (see Image 5) (Welovead, 2016). ANZ Bank deliberately used children as the main characters and ordinary housework to show that pay inequality is not just a matter for women working in the offices. The advertisement was shared on International Women's Day and marked a huge success. A total of 12 million viewers were viewed on social networks, and the total reach was 1.5 billion and 93 countries. ANZ bank stated the ad had a significantly positive effect on the company's reputation, brand image and purchase intention (Welovead, 2016).
Image 5 ANZ: #EqualFuture; Source: Youtube, 2016
2.5.Regulation of Gender Stereotypes in Advertising in the Czech Republic
This work does not aim to include the regulation of gender stereotypes in advertising at the EU level or at the international level. However, for the sake of completeness, it is worth mentioning that equality between the sexes is considered one of the core values and is the central concern to gender policy in the EU. Treaty of Amsterdam incorporated the principle of equal treatment between women and men and the efforts to eliminate inequalities (Belavusau & Henrard, 2018). Today, the EU continues to dedicate special attention to gender discrimination. According to the report Strategy for Equality between Women and Men 2020-2025, gender stereotypes are a major cause of gender inequality and affect all society areas (European Commission, 2020).
This report also reveals that 44% of Europeans believe that a woman's most important role is to take care of the household and the family, while a man's primary role is to make money. Moreover, according to the European Commission (2020), such stereotypical expectations based on fixed standards for women and men limit their ambitions, choices, and freedom and must therefore be removed. The European Commission (2020) further states that media and the cultural sector have a significant impact on citizens' views and values and their perceptions of reality. Consequently, they remain vital in changing attitudes and eliminating stereotypes (European
Commission, 2020). Regulation occurs at the EU level directives, which are subsequently implemented by states into their legal systems.
In the Czech Republic, advertising is considered to be a public affair that concerns the general public (Hajn, 1998). According to Czech law, advertising has the power to influence the decisions of a large group of the population, it can endanger the mental climate of society and thus is regulated (Hajn, 1998). In addition to legal regulation, there are also Czech independent non-governmental bodies advocating for eliminating unethical portrayals of women and men in advertising. The following paragraphs describe the actions both governmental and non-governmental entities take to address gender stereotypes in the advertisement.
2.5.1. Government Regulation
In the post-November period, the general regulation of advertising was initially included in the Federal Consumer Protection Act (1992) and later in a separate Act on the Regulation of Advertising (1995). Regulatory provisions in advertising also appear in a number of other legal regulations, both general codes (Commercial Code) and special regulations (Radio and Television Broadcasting Act, Press Act).
The Czech legal system deals with the issue of gender stereotypes in advertising through the lens of discrimination and sexism, and the central document in this area is Act No. 40/1995 Coll., on the regulation of advertising and the amendment of Act No.
468/1991 Coll., on the operation of radio and television broadcasting, in the wording of later regulations. As a form of sexism is, according to Methodological Information No.
12/2015, Op. cit., p. 3., considered the reduction of a person to an object, the neglect of the personality and the denial of the related dignity and value of the person. Gender discrimination is referred to when certain persons are assigned characteristics or position in society based on stereotypical portrayals (The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2015). Attention is paid especially to these elements:
• use of the human body unrelated to the product,
• depiction of a mere body part (especially the headless body part),
• sexually coloured elements (ambiguous texts to attract attention),
• stereotypical depictions (unequally evaluated roles of men and women in advertising) (The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2015).
Nevertheless, as further stated in the Methodological Information, not every depiction of a stereotype in advertising is considered discriminatory (The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2015). The biased portrayal is considered to be only such that displays a woman or a man in a position that clearly places them in a weak role, or role less important or respectable, especially in the mutual 'confrontation' of both sexes (The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2015). For example, the fact that a woman
appears in detergent advertising will not by itself lead to the advertising being against the law. The problem would arise when the advertising implies that caring for the household is a woman's ultimate life goal. This type of advertising threatens to limit the ambitions, choices, and freedom of individuals. It can be legally sanctioned if it meets the following condition: "Advertising must not be contrary to good morals, in particular, it must not discriminate on the grounds of race, sex or nationality or attack religious or national feelings, endanger morality in a generally unacceptable manner, reduce human dignity, contain elements of pornography, violence or elements of fear" (Act No. 40/1995 Coll. § 2 par. 3).
Whether or not a stereotypical depiction is considered contrary to good morals depends on whether the roles depicted are perceived as equal or not. A nonproblematic depiction of gender would be one in which neither role is recognised as inferior, and both groups accept their portrayed role without reservations (The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2015). An example would be an ad presenting a man in a role of a firefighter and a woman in a teacher's role, who both are considered equal in terms of their roles, and their cast probably corresponds to a statistical representation of gender in these positions. More problematic would be the portrayal of women and men in roles they commonly represent in society, but society does not accept the attribution of these roles to individuals based on their gender (The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2015). An ad that uses such representation of roles may be inconsistent with good morals if this depiction demonstrably contributes to discrimination or reduced dignity (The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2015).
This could be, for example, an ad displaying a man in a superior professional role and a woman in a subordinate professional role (although modern society strives to achieve an equal representation of women and men in management positions) or an advertisement portraying a man as incompetent to take care of a household or child (despite man and woman should be equal partners in terms of the childcare and the household) (The Czech Ministry of Industry and Trade, 2015).
2.5.2. Self-regulation and Activities of Non-governmental Organisations
In addition to the legal system, there is a relatively effective regulation of advertising in the form of so-called self-regulation, aimed primarily at protecting the ethical principles of advertising, which is an area that is often legally difficult to tackle. Self-regulation of advertising cannot be considered a substitute for legal regulation; it rather complements it as a result of the will of the industry itself (Rada pro reklamu, 2021a).
According to Winter, "self-regulatory institutions are usually set up by individuals and companies involved in the advertising industry, i.e. advertisers, the media and advertising agencies or their associations" (2007, p. 82). Self-regulatory entities are united by an ethical basis, which is usually manifested in the form of a Code. The condition for the functioning of self-regulation is the agreement on this standard, which the institutions undertake to adhere to. In the Czech Republic, this Code is represented
by the 'Advertising Code' issued by Rada pro reklamu in 2013. This Code aims to help ensure that "advertising is, above all, true, fair and honest, and that it respects the internationally recognised principles of advertising practice developed by the International Chamber of Commerce" (Rada pro reklamu, 2013, p. 2).
Rada pro reklamu (RPR) is an independent non-governmental body, a civic association established in 1994 (Rada pro reklamu, 2021b). It follows up on Czech legislation and supplements it with ethical conditions for advertising as such (Rada pro reklamu, 2021a). This entity aims to restrict the advertising industry to a certain extent to avoid ethical or moral damage to society (Rada pro reklamu, 2021a). Since 1995, RPR has been a member of EASA - the European Association of Self-Regulatory Bodies, which influenced the formulation of the Advertising Code (Rada pro reklamu, 2021b).
All RPR members (e.g., Plzeňský Prazdroj, ČEZ, TV NOVA, SAZKA, or Raiffeisenbank) have committed to respect the Advertising Code. Compliance with the Code is monitored directly by the public through complaints to RPR that can be submitted by any natural or legal person, state, or other authorities. RPR assesses complaints in the following areas: print, billboards, delivery services, audiovisual production, cinemas, radio and television broadcasting, and the Internet. In contrast, RPR does not deal with political advertising and complaints where legal reservations prevail over ethical ones (Rada pro reklamu, 2021b).
RPR features the addressed cases between 2002 and 2020 on its website. They are divided into several categories, according to the type of the advertisement: women in advertising; sexism; children in advertising; alcohol; tobacco; S, K, Z (comparative, deceptive, misleading); personality protection; consumer protection; fear; violence;
vulgarism and racism (Rada pro reklamu, 2021c).
Each reported case is assessed by the Advertising Council's Arbitration Commission, and a decision is issued on its harmlessness or defectiveness with a stated justification. To date, RPR assessed 1057 cases, out of which nearly 200 were considered harmful. Due to its non-governmental and non-profit nature, RPR cannot impose financial fines or other sanctions. However, it can issue decisions in the form of recommendation. The recommendations further serve as a base for a decision-making process of a relevant Regional Trade Licensing Office, which is entitled to impose sanctions (Rada pro reklamu, 2021b).
Stínová Rada pro reklamu (SRPR) was founded in 2014 to reflect the activities of RPR. Its main goal is to reduce the incidence of sexist and unethical advertising and increase the efficiency of RPR. SRPR reflects on existing decisions issued by RPR and assess advertising concerning its compliance with good morals, the legal system of the Czech Republic and the values related to equality between women and men. A motion to SRPR can be made by any person, including its members, via e-mail or the SRPR's website. The proposed motion is afterwards delegated to a competent
supervisory authority, which subsequently issues a statement (Stínová rada pro reklamu, n.d.). Approved statements are then sent to the RPR and published on the SRPR website. However, it is questionable to what extent the association is active since its website seems rather outdated.
The initiative Nesehnutí was established in 1997, and its aim, among others, is to provoke discussion regarding discrimination and sexism. In the field of advertising, the initiative strives to ensure that the industry is ethical and does not depict gender stereotypes (Nesehnutí, 2021). According to Nesehnutí, ethical advertisement is such that does not:
• contain inappropriate ambiguities,
• present women and men in a degrading way,
• depict violent behaviour, domestic or linguistic violence,
• show women and men as sexual or other objects, and
• use linguistic pornography unless it is directly related to the subject of the advertisement (Prasátečko, 2021).
In order to elicit a public discussion regarding sexism in advertising, the initiative established the anti-prize Sexistické prasátečko, and has published several publications (e.g., Sexist advertising, Law vs sexism, Fighting sexism). Sexistické prasátečko was a public survey on the most sexist advertising in the Czech Republic, which took place between 2009 and 2018. The anti-prize strived to point out the harmful impact of gender stereotypes in advertising and the portrayal of men and women in a discriminatory manner. The competition evaluated ads across a wide range of media (e.g., billboards, TV, print, Internet) and warned against those that had the potential to cause harm because of their sexist nature. According to the organisers, the anti-prize had fulfilled its goal in 2018 (to stir up a debate on sexism in the Czech Republic) and has terminated its activity.
2.6. Summary of the Literature Review
Several literature streams were investigated to understand the use of gender stereotypes in advertising, consumers' responses to these depictions, gender stereotypes' effects on individuals and society, companies' contemporary approach to this issue and also regulation tackling gender stereotypes in advertising in the Czech Republic.
Although gender stereotypes in advertising have been addressed in the academic literature for more than 50 years, the topic is more vibrant than ever. Based on the literature review, there seem to be two main reasons behind that. Firstly, gender roles portrayed in advertising are closely connected to the continually evolving society's
widely shared belief of typically masculine and feminine characteristics (Ashmore &
Del Boca, 1981). Secondly, in Western societies, particularly, influential movements (e.g., #MeToo, Time's Up) are emerging that breathe new life into the debate on men and women's role in society (Tsichla, 2020).
As further revealed by the literature review, the consumer's response to gender stereotypes in advertising is dependent on several factors. Firstly, as stated by Theodoridis et al. (2013), gender stereotypes are culturally bound, and hence the consumer's response also differs across time and place. Secondly, several authors suggest that the perception also varies among women and men and younger and older consumers (e.g., DeYoung and Crane, 1992; Eisend et al., 2014; Ford et al., 1998;
Kolman & Tkalac Verčić, 2012). These findings, however, are not united, and specifically, the literature on the differences among different age groups is very limited and offers contradicting results. Moreover, the research primarily deals with traditional gender stereotypes (e.g., a woman as a housewife, a dominant man) and only a little attention is given to the perception of counter-gender stereotypes (e.g., empowered woman, a man taking care of children).
To the best of our knowledge, there is a gap in the literature that would investigate the current perception of traditional gender stereotypes and counter-gender stereotypes in advertising by Czech consumers. Hence, this work aims to contribute to close this gap by conducting a qualitative study that will examine the Czech consumers' perceptions of traditional and counter-gender stereotypes in advertising. This will help to grasp a deeper understanding of the topic in several areas: marketing professionals to better target consumers with an appropriate advertisement, regulatory institutions to identify the market trends and adapt the regulations accordingly, and also sociologists to further study the attitudes towards traditional gender stereotypes in society.
