The philosopher Jan Sokol introduces three different sets of rules on how individuals govern themselves where, besides social custom and individual morality, he argues that the best rules regulate relations in a society: ethics as a search for what is best (Sokol, 2016). This accounts for a positive action on the side of an individual, a creation.
These forces correspond closely to the two forces, imitation and innovation, which were the ones that the French sociologist Gabriel Tarde identified at the very beginning of the 20th century, substantially ahead of his time. Tarde saw no difference between natural and social sciences; he understood society to function on the same sets of networks as a cell would (Latour, 2009, p. 160). As Bruno Latour points out in his celebration of Tarde`s early genius, the sociology focusing on the holistic approach, on the whole, has lost its privileged status: “because everything is a society, there is no clear divide between the biological and the social”. With the development of technology, it shows that society in its nature is truly no different than a cell. Only a lack of tools caused Tarde to be pushed aside by sociologists, who argued a difference between the individualistic and the holistic.
Faced with the fast developments of the unregulated cyberspace, Lawrence Lessig (Lessig, 2000) warned against a regulatory attack on the internet, which he saw coming back in the beginning of millennium. Instead, he proposed for the common values and shared consensus to guide cyberspace`s regulation by positive means, infusing ideas into individuals through positive action and example. To borrow a biological term, using the connection first anticipated by Tarde, the way to regulate cyberspace is not to build an artificial castle of rules for it, but to observe it as a developing cell, subtly and naturally influencing it from the inside. Based on my opinion that is why Big Data Ethics by Default (Law) must be enriched by Big Data Ethics by Default that is more about self-regulation principles of data specialist working with Big Data in the field of all possible ICT projects.
49 5.2.2 Relationship Between Human Values and Sociology
Leading sociologists from the previous century such as Emile Durkheim (1897-1964) and Max Weber (1905-1958) said human values are a central concept for explaining social behavior of groups and individuals. As stated by the Israeli sociologist Shalom H.Schwartz:
“Values have played an important role not only in sociology, but in psychology, anthropology, and related disciplines as well. Values are used to characterize cultural groups, societies, and individuals, to trace change over time, and to explain the motivational bases of attitudes and behavior.” (Schwartz, 2012).
Before I discuss in detail, in a special chapter, how Big Data use cases and society represented by the shared human values are in conflict, I will briefly introduce two complex concepts of human values, namely the Schwartz theory of human values and the European Charter of fundamental rights.
5.2.3 Human Values Based on Schwartz Theory
The Schwartz theory covers ten values that are recognized in all cultures worldwide that has been confirmed by a comprehensive survey done on more than 60,000 individuals in 64 nations (Wikipedia, 2019).
Although the ten values are recognized by all nations, they differ is their importance among different nations and individuals, thus the values can be ordered by their importance relative to one another. It is also important to mention that these values can be considered as beliefs that are impossible to separate from actions.
Based on Schwartz, we can differentiate the motivation of individuals and explanations of their behavior following attributes such as attitude, belief, values, traits and norms. The differentiation between attitudes and values that are essential for me while we will ask for them in our own Big Data survey. We can describe the difference between attitudes and values by the following quote from Schwartz:
“Attitudes are evaluations of objects as good or bad, desirable or undesirable. Attitudes can evaluate people, behaviors, events, or any object, whether specific (ice cream) or abstract (progress). They vary on a positive/negative scale. Values underlie our attitudes;
they are the basis for our evaluations. We evaluate people, behaviors, events, etc.
positively if they promote or protect attainment of the goals we value. We evaluate them negatively if they hinder or threaten attainment of these valued goals. If we value stimulation highly and attribute little importance to security values, for example, we are likely to have a positive attitude toward bungee jumping.” (Schwartz, 2012).
The list of ten basic human values below shows that we can group values into four categories based on their similarity such as openness to change, self-transcendence,
50 conservation, self-enhancement. A short description of these ten values done below is an extract from the original Schwartz theory (Schwartz, 2012).
Figure 16 - The list of basic human values is shown below (2012, Schwartz).
Self-Direction
Defining goal: independent thought and action-choosing, creating, exploring.
Stimulation
Defining goal: excitement, novelty, and challenge in life.
Hedonism
Defining goal: pleasure or sensuous gratification for oneself.
Achievement
Defining goal: personal success through demonstrating competence according to social standards.
Power
Defining goal: social status and prestige, control or dominance over people and resources.
Security
Defining goal: safety, harmony, and stability of society, of relationships, and of self.
Conformity
51 Defining goal: restraint of actions, inclinations, and impulses likely to upset or harm others
and violate social expectations or norms.
Tradition
Defining goal: respect, commitment, and acceptance of the customs and ideas that one's
culture or religion provides.
Benevolence
Defining goal: preserving and enhancing the welfare of those with whom one is in frequent
personal contact (the ‘in-group’).
Universalism
Defining goal: understanding, appreciation, tolerance, and protection for the welfare of the ‘in-group’.
It is important to know that these ten values interact together and we can also group them into the two big groups based on whether they have either a personal or social focus.
Values with personal focus are: achievements, power, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction.
Values with social focus are: security, conformity, tradition, universalism, benevolence.
A short evaluation of these Schwartz values that were also observed in our Big Data survey is in a special chapter: 7.5.1 Exploratory Data Analysis.
5.2.4 Human Values Based on EU Charter of Fundamental Rights
There is a long history in the declaration of human rights worldwide and especially in the US and Europe after the second world war. For a deeper overview of the international norms in the area of human rights, I recommend the book by D.C. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect (2001).
In 2000, the Council and the Commission of the European Parliament solemnly proclaimed the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union.
In the preamble of this document it is written:
“The peoples of Europe, in creating an ever closer union among them, are resolved to share a peaceful future based on common values. Conscious of its spiritual and moral heritage, the Union is founded on the indivisible, universal values of human dignity, freedom,
52 equality and solidarity; it is based on the principles of democracy and the rule of law. It places the individual at the heart of its activities, by establishing the citizenship of the Union and by creating an area of freedom, security and justice.” (European parliament, 2000).
The following list of values can be derived from this document:
• Dignity
Human dignity, right to life, integrity of person …etc.
• Freedoms
Right to receive and impart information, Liberty and security, respect for private life, protection of personal data …etc.
• Equality
Equality before the law, culture, religious and linguistic diversity, equality between women and men …etc.
• Solidarity
Workers right, prohibition of child labor, family protection, social security, healthcare
…etc.
• Citizens Right
Right to vote and run for political office, right to good administration, freedom of movement and residence …etc.
• Justice
Presumption of innocence and right of defense …etc.
A short evaluation of these European values that were also observed in our Big Data survey is in a special chapter: 7.5.1 Exploratory Data Analysis.
5.2.5 Professional Group Ethics
The professional group ethics is usually defined by professional organizations that group people based on a shared professional identity.
“The common identity is produced and reproduced through occupational and professional socialization by means of shared educational backgrounds, professional training and vocational experiences, and by membership of professional associations (local, regional, national and international) and institutes where practitioners develop and maintain a shared work culture.”, (Evetts, 2006).
53 Every industry wants to keep certain standards and best practice procedures to avoid the negative effects that could harm their customers or members of their professional organizations. Membership in such a professional organization related to specific industries or occupations is usually not mandatory; however, there are some benefits such as personal certification, available training, access to knowledge bases, possible participation in conferences that are available only to members of these organizations.
And in some cases, if you are not a member of such a professional organization, you practically cannot do your job, like doctors of medicine that are not members of Camera Medica.
It is very typical that professional organizations declare their ethical standards valid for its members that are not legally binding but their breaking can be the official reason for a member’s expulsion from the professional organization that has a similar impact to being punished from the court. Professional group ethics belong to applied ethics, because different problems are created and solved by different professional groups, e.g. medical doctors or by farmers. Philosopher Jan Sokol said:
“The achievements of modern science, technology, economics and organisation have enormously broadened the scope of human possibilities; and millions of people around the world are dedicated to the continued expansion of these possibilities. However, there are also a growing number of people who are troubled by the use we make of these incredible possibilities. Among the first of these were the physicists who, after the explosion of the first atomic bomb, were genuinely horrified by the forces they had unleashed. And the expansion of such possibilities has only gathered pace since then, giving the ancient question – ‘how ought we to live?’ – a new meaning and a new urgency, as attested to by the rich literature, the plethora of ethical codices and commissions and even our everyday public debate.”12 (Sokol, 2016).
The topic of professional ethics that is defined and valid for its members and belongs to regulative framework as a logical regulative tool that fits between general social norms and specific legislation.