3.1 Stress management strategies
When people are facing stress or a challenging life circumstance, they use a variety of psychological techniques to help them to cope with pressure. The concept of coping has been studied for a long time and the range of studies is extensive. In general, the term “coping” refers to a model of behavior that allows you to adapt to a stressful situation, as well as successfully resolve personal and professional problems. In other words, it is a stress response strategy.
However, research has shown that pro-active coping also takes place, and its purpose is to prepare and prevent the effects of potential stress.
Coping is thoughts and behaviors used to manage internal and external responses to stressful situations. The exact type of coping depends on the way person interacts with the stressor. The so-called active coping is designed to deal with stress and the emotions it causes. This approach in the context of COVID-19 mainly involves a problem-solving approach (for example, home schooling for children). There are other approaches, such as avoidance (for example, avoiding thoughts of COVID-19), denial (for example, denying the existence of the virus).
One of the modern classifications identifies three broad types of coping strategies:
1. Cognitive adaptation (change in attitude to the situation: humor, denial, change of goals and values, in other words, "you cannot influence the situation - change your attitude towards it")
2. Behavioral adaptation (obtaining new competencies and theoretical knowledge that can help to cope with the problem)
3. Emotionally oriented strategies (relaxation, meditation, mindfulness practice)
Stress is multifaceted in its manifestations. It plays an important role in the occurrence of not only mental disorders, but also, based on the American Institute of Stress, it causes from 75 to 90 percent of all diseases (Marksberry, 2021). Therefore, the search for ways to manage stress, to maintain physical and psychological health in modern society, is becoming one of the most important areas of psychological work and makes it especially relevant research related to the study of the causes of stress and ways to overcome it.
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Since the idea of coping is about providing psychological adaptation to a situation, solving a problem, or restoring psychological well-being, it is important to determine the extent to which different coping strategies contribute to these processes. The concept of "coping" implies
"overcoming", therefore "coping strategies" refers to adaptive or constructive strategies aimed at reducing the experience of stress and resolving the situation. But with this, some coping strategies are still maladaptive manifestations leading to a decrease in the psychological and physical well-being of a person. Usage strategies such as the use of alcohol, drugs often relieve stress, but further leads to an increase in the level of depression, anxiety, and poor health.
If we talk about the effectiveness of coping strategies, then it is necessary to take into account a number of factors:
1) culture,
2) the context of the stressful situation, 3) the level of emotions and stress, 4) the purpose of coping.
In general, the most productive coping strategies include proactive coping, strategies for actively coping with problems, planning activities, reaching out to other people for social support, coping focused on finding meaning and strategies for humor. Studies within the attributive approach to motivation and in the field of cognitive-behavioral therapy show that, from the point of view of maintaining psychological well-being, it is productive to turn to optimistic thinking strategies that include constructive thoughts about the causes of failure, emphasizing controlled aspects of the situation, focus on constructive future actions, and not blame yourself for what happened.
Sigmund Freud was the first one who introduced the concept of defense mechanism. According to his theory, defense mechanisms are certain reactions of the brain to existing external stimuli that arise at the unconscious level. By distorting reality, they help reduce the threat of stress and anxiety. The main purpose of the action of protective psychological mechanisms is to protect a person from possible experiences caused by contradictions between social requirements and personal views of a person.
The most used mechanisms are (Melnik, 2004):
• Repression
This defense mechanism is a basis, on which more complex defense mechanisms are given an impulse to develop. This mechanism represents a special "forgetting" or "removal" from the conscious level of thoughts and feelings, which act as a source of anxiety and psychological discomfort. As a result of the action of this mechanism, events that preceded the onset of psychological trauma disappear from memory. However, it should be noted that the defense
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mechanism of repression is not absolute and there is always the possibility that repressed memories will find a way out. In this regard, a person spends a large amount of energy to suppress unpleasant memories and thus the sphere of personality development as a whole suffers.
• Displacement
The action of this mechanism is the redirection of attention from a threatening object to another.
An example of this mechanism is the behavior of a child who was punished by his parents and takes out his irritation on younger siblings or toys, offending and breaking them. For adults, this mechanism also manifests in taking out negative feelings on a weaker person, pets, or surrounding objects.
• Projection
It is a mechanism that transfers person’s thoughts and feelings to the people around him, trying to relieve himself of responsibility for his own troubles and failures. An example of the manifestation of this mechanism is a situation in which a student did not prepare for the exam.
He tries to explain the received bad mark by the fact that the teacher is simply biased towards him as a person.
• Rationalization
It is a deliberate distortion of the surrounding reality by a person in order to maintain a high level of self-esteem. An example of the manifestation of the rationalization mechanism can be the behavior of a man, who is denied by a woman of his interest. Denying to admit failure, the man convinces himself and the people around him that she is unattractive and that she has many negative qualities that have nothing to do with him. In this way, the man maintains self-esteem and peace of mind.
• Sublimation
It is a psychological mechanism that allows a person to change their impulses and attitudes, so that they become acceptable for a given social environment. It is sublimation that is considered in psychology to be one of the healthiest and correct mechanisms of psychological protection of the individual, due to the fact that a person not only restrains the negative impulses he has but changes the form of their manifestation in accordance with his capabilities and the norms of the social environment.
• Regression
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It is a kind of return to childhood patterns of behavior. The action of this mechanism occurs with the aim of protecting the individual from the emerging shocks and stress. Crying is a main example of this defense mechanism.
• Reactive formation
It is expressed on two levels: in the process of suppressing emerging negative or unacceptable impulses. And simultaneously with this, there is the formation of motives of the opposite content at the level of the unconscious and subconscious. Most often, a similar mechanism manifests itself in public life. For example, in society it is considered extremely indecent to actively manifest sexual desire. Thus, a woman who has a similar feature actively suppresses it in herself and, in order to earn approval and social status, acts as an active fighter for morality and high morality.
• Denial
It is a defense mechanism, which consists in a person's refusal to admit the facts of the occurrence of negative and traumatic events.
3.2 Healthy lifestyle
Nowadays an individual more and more often must live at the limit of one’s capabilities, in rapidly changing conditions and in constant stress. Therefore, in order to preserve and strengthen his health and be able to overcome stressful influences, person must create his own way of life and individual system of behavior, which will best ensure his achievement of physical, spiritual and social well-being.
In order to form a system of a healthy lifestyle, it is necessary to know the factors that have a positive effect on health. This is adherence to the daily regimen, rational nutrition, hardening, physical education and sports, good relationships with people around and psychological balance.
Factors that negatively affect health should also be taken into account: smoking, alcohol and drug use, emotional and mental stress when communicating with others, unfavorable environmental conditions in places of residence.
Psychological balance, as a component of psychological stability, means the ability to minimize the negative impact in the emergence of tension, or the ability to maintain tension within acceptable limits. Balance is also the ability to avoid extremes in the power of response to events (Volozin, 1987).
The next component of stress management is physical activity. Physical activity is understood as any muscle activity that allows person to maintain optimal physical shape and ensure good health. People who are constantly engaged in physical activity are less prone to stress, they cope
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better with anxiety, depression, anger and fear. They are not only able to quickly relax, but also know how to relieve emotional stress through exercise (Zholdak, 1992). A 2019 study published in the journal JAMA Psychiatry confirmed that physical activity can help manage chronic stress and prevent depression. Scientists have found that moderate exercise has a positive effect on the hippocampus - a gyrus of the brain involved in emotional reactions and memory mechanisms.
Sometimes a poor psychological state interferes with starting to do sport. When there is no strength, emotions come to the fore. At such moments, it is useful to remember why sport is useful.
The body constantly reacts to certain stressors, and these reactions are different for each person.
The level of the destructive effect of these reactions depends primarily on the level of the body's defense, which can be increased only through adequate nutrition. Rational nutrition is nutrition that ensures growth, normal development, and vital activity of a person, contributing to the improvement of his health and the prevention of diseases. Rational nutrition involves:
1. Energy balance.
2. Balanced diet.
3. Compliance with the diet regime.
Also, supportive social contacts are believed to have a positive effect on subjective well-being and preventing or relieving stress. It is found out that the help of family members and friends has the most important influence on their behavior. Emotional support of a loved one gives physiological benefits. “When we are close to a person we know - even just with an acquaintance, not to mention a husband or wife - such different processes can occur in our body as a slowdown of the heart rate, improving the immune system and reducing depression (Allen, 2002). Social media communication helps people to cope with stress and improve well-being This approach allows them to cope with various problems, for example, social media are able to help people who find it difficult to communicate with others. On the Internet, without seeing the interlocutor, it is easier to communicate, so social networks can be the first step towards starting an active life. There people can find someone with common interests and unite in groups, share information and good mood. And networks also provide the ability to post your own content to feel the approval and recognition that users express through likes and comments. An additional convenience of social networks is relative anonymity, hiding behind an avatar and a nickname, an insecure person will be able to defend his point of view, which he would hardly have dared to do outside the virtual space. The most valuable thing is that the successes acquired in social networks do not interfere with real life at all. Recharged with positive emotions online, people often feel more confident in life outside the network, and many receive a powerful incentive to be creative.
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3.3 Maladaptive coping strategies
Maladaptive coping strategies are unhealthy ways of coping with stress, among which is overeating, alcohol usage, smoking, gambling, and or usage of illegal drugs. Maladaptive coping strategies can lead to a rapid sedative effect, but the long-term effects are negative. The strategy is focused on the reaction itself and is aimed at correcting the emotional state of the individual to a greater extent than at external stressors. This type of behavior is rather manipulative, destructive and has a negative impact on mental and physical health as well as overall well-being which leads to a lowering of stress tolerance (Aghazade, 2008).
Maladaptive coping strategies include:
• “Humility”, “confusion”, “ignorance” - passive forms of behavior with refusal to overcome difficulties due to lack of belief in oneself and intellectual resources, with underestimation of troubles on purpose.
• "Suppression of emotions", "submissiveness", "self-accusation", "aggressiveness" - behaviors characterized by a depressed emotional state, a state of hopelessness, obedience and exclusion of other feelings, the experience of anger and blame on oneself and others.
• "Active avoidance", "retreat" - behavior that involves avoiding thoughts of trouble, passivity, solitude, isolation, the desire to get away from active interpersonal contacts, refusal to solve problems (Aghazade, 2008).
The study on perceived stress and coping strategies during the COVID-19 shows that even though students reported relatively good knowledge of healthy coping strategies, while being under a high level of stress during pandemic made them choose maladaptive coping strategies (Thai, 2021).