Prague University of Economics and Business
Master’s Thesis
2021 Tatiana Gudkova
Prague University of Economics and Business Faculty of Business Administration
Master’s Field: International Management
The pandemic’s impact on the young people's well-being
Author: Bc. Tatiana Gudkova
Supervisor: doc. PhDr. Ing. Eva Jarošová, Ph.D.
Declaration of Authenticity
I hereby declare that the Master´s Thesis “The pandemic’s impact on the young people's well- being” presented herein is my own work, or fully and specifically acknowledged wherever adapted from other sources. This work has not been published or submitted elsewhere for
the requirement of a degree programme.
Prague, December 15, 2021 Signature
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my gratitude to doc. PhDr. Ing. Eva Jarošová, for supervising this work, providing me with consultations, comments and valuable
suggestions. I thank my family and beloved ones for their support and help during my studies. I would also like to thank all the respondents who devoted
their time to the purposes of this research.
Title of Master’s Thesis:
The pandemic’s impact on the young people's well-being
Abstract:
This Master’s thesis focuses on exploring how young people living in the Czech Republic perceived their well-being during self-isolation due to COVID19. This work aims to identify the influence of self-isolation on young people’s mental health, outline the main stressors and emotions as well as common coping strategies of the respondents, participating in the study. The work delivers a recommendation based on the analyses of literature review, secondary and primary research, and the comparison of the theory and practice.
Key words:
Mental health, well-being, stress, self-isolation, stress management, COVID–19, loneliness, social media6
Table of content
Introduction ... 8
I Theoretical part ... 10
1. Mental health and well-being ... 11
1.1 History and definition of well-being ... 11
1.1 Subjective well-being ... 14
1.2 Mental hygiene ... 15
2. Stress ... 18
2.1 The concept of stress and the causes of its occurrence. ... 18
2.2 General adaptation theory ... 21
2.3 Types of stress ... 23
2.4 Social stress ... 24
3. Stress management ... 28
3.1 Stress management strategies ... 28
3.2 Healthy lifestyle ... 31
3.3 Maladaptive coping strategies ... 33
4. Loneliness ... 33
4.1 Definition of loneliness ... 33
4.2 The nature of loneliness... 34
4.3 Types of loneliness ... 35
4.4 Preconditions for loneliness... 37
4.5 Definition and types of isolation ... 39
4.6 Consequences of isolation ... 40
4.7 Options for coping with loneliness feeling ... 41
5. Impact of COVID-19 on mental health ... 43
II Empirical Part ... 47
6. Methodology ... 48
6.1 The subject and objectives of the research study ... 48
6.2 Secondary research ... 48
6.3 Primary research questions formulation ... 48
6.4 Description of the sample examined ... 49
7. Data gathering ... 51
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7.1 Interview description ... 51
7.2 Questionnaire description ... 52
7.3 Research limitations ... 52
7.4 Methods of data analysis and interpretation ... 52
8. Data analysis ... 55
8.1 The state of the mental health during self-isolation ... 56
8.2 Usage of social media ... 58
8.3 Stress and its impact ... 59
8.4 Coping strategies to help yourself ... 61
8.5 Devotion time to self-development ... 63
9. Discussion ... 65
10. Recommendations ... 67
11. Conclusion ... 69
List of figures ... 71
List of tables ... 71
References ... 71
Appendices ... 77
8 Introduction
At the end of March 2020, the whole world was put into self-isolation and our usual life was paused. At best, the work was transferred to online mode; at worst, people lost it. The coronavirus spreading around the world is urging us to suppress our deeply human and evolutionarily programmed impulses for social connections: to see people, to gather in groups or to touch each other. Meetings with friends shifted to video-only and calls to elderly parents and grandparents are more often and more anxious. Coronavirus has become a crash test not only for the economy, healthcare and science. Most scientific publications indicate that isolation leads to various psychological consequences. This is an increased level of anxiety, insomnia and emotional instability, psychosomatic manifestations, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression.
The circumstances in which we now find ourselves - the threat of the COVID19 virus, lack of control, uncertainty, social isolation, a change in the usual rhythm of life - are ideal conditions for the constant decrease of mental health. And if the individual does not find ways to cope with stress, this can lead to depression and other psychological problems.
However, the self-isolation regime cannot be considered as the only cause of the outbreak of psychological problems. Much depends on the individual characteristics of a person, on how stable he felt before strict measures related to the pandemic. At the same time, self-isolation has not become a serious test for everyone. Someone has found many advantages in the current situation and, on the contrary, no longer wants to return to the previous form of life.
At the moment, it is important to analyze these problems and find optimal solutions and recommendations that would help us all get out of this crisis using our personal and social resources. Meanwhile, a significant gap remains between mental health needs and mental health funding. The UNICEF report shows that around 2% of government health budgets are allocated to mental health globally (The State of the World’s Children 2021, 2021). Also, based on Young minds survey, there are significant gaps in mental health support. The National Health Service (NHS), schools, universities and employers had worked hard on adaptation and improvement of services, but in reality, many respondents didn’t receive the mental support they needed (Coronavirus: Impact on young people with mental health needs, 2021).
These reasons motivated me to think about this topic and write my diploma thesis.
The aim of this work is to analyze how COVID19 pandemic impacted the well-being of young people living in the Czech Republic and based on the outcomes of the analysis provide relevant recommendations. This thesis can be useful in an educative sense, because they will understand
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their character better and get to know how to help themselves to cope and overcome stress and frustration during the pandemic restrictions.
The theoretical part of the work is focused on the characteristics of basic concepts. It explains the terms well-being, stress, loneliness, its manifestations and classification. This section also highlights the effects of stress and feeling of loneliness on human health, as well as the possibilities of coping with stress, decreased well-being and how to maintain it. Reasonable attention is also paid to the impact of COVID-19 on mental health.
The methodological part defines the main goal of the work, secondary research method, research questions, justifies the selection of the research sample and highlights its characteristics. In this part, the method of data collection and analysis, as well as the research process are defined.
To achieve the goals of this work, the following methods are being used: observation, survey, synthesis, analysis, theory and practice comparison and scientific description.
The last chapter of the thesis represents a discussion of the results. Connections between theoretical knowledge and data obtained in research are shown. The conclusion of this part is the recommendations and possibilities for overcoming stress and frustration during the pandemic restrictions.
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I Theoretical part
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1. Mental health and well-being
1.1 History and definition of well-being
According to the WHO definition, health is "not only the absence of disease and physical defects", but also "a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being." This is in line with the biopsychosocial model of health, which considers physiological, psychological, and social variables in health and sickness, as well as their relationships. It varies from the traditional medical model, which emphasizes the significance of clinical diagnosis and intervention and defines health as the absence of illness or disease. The WHO definition expressly relates health to happiness, and views health as a human right that requires physical and social resources to attain and maintain. However, in more than 60 years of its existence, WHO did not conduct or provide any information on well-being, instead, it focused on death, illness and disability in its reports. Of course, monitoring activity is one of the central and core functions of the Organization, thus WHO is currently establishing partnerships with other agencies to be able to describe the well-being of populations and assess progress towards improving well-being in the context of health (World Health Organization, 2012).
Mental health refers to a person's ability to cope with everyday stress, be aware of his own skills, and work efficiently. People's ability to empathize, think, and interact with one another is dependent on their mental health. (World Health Organization, 2012).
The term "wellbeing" refers to a positive rather than a neutral state, and it frames health as a desirable goal. The 1986 Ottawa Charter adopted this concept, describing health as "a resource for everyday life, not the purpose of living." From this perspective, health is a means to a happy life, emphasizing the relationship between health and social involvement (Martino, 2018).
Because its existence or absence is not a diagnosis, wellbeing exists outside of the medical model of health.
Well-being is viewed as is a complex interconnection of cultural, social, psychological, physical, economic and spiritual factors. According to M. Seligman, the components of the well-being are:
1. involvement;
2. meaning;
3. positive emotions;
4. achievements (accomplishments, victories, success);
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5. relationships with other people (directly related to other elements, as they bring meaning to life, are accompanied either by involvement or positive emotions and are associated with achievements) (Seligman, 2012).
Some of these components are assessed objectively, others are subjective (based on self- assessment). Each element contributes to the achievement of a higher level of well-being, but
"well-being is not reduced to any of the components". Also M. Seligman notes that by making choices in life, we strive to achieve the greatest success in each component (Seligman, 2012).
People, objects, natural phenomena, events can cause people to experience a wave of emotions and feelings. It is believed to be a fundamental quality of a person: the things that draw human‘s attention are capable of profoundly influencing a person's feelings and can generate changes.
This especially applies to his social environment, close relatives, friends, colleagues. A person's being transforms as a result of such value experiences, which manifests itself in his psychological growth. He improves his capacity to broaden his value perspectives and, as a result, his living space. With other stable conditions of life, the tendency for the development of the described process can be identified with the tendency for an increase in well-being. And on the other hand, Mental, social, and behavioral health problems may interact so as to intensify their effects on behavior and well-being. Substance abuse, violence, and abuses of women and children on the one hand, and health problems such as heart disease, depression, and anxiety on the other, are more prevalent and more difficult to cope with in conditions of high unemployment, low income, limited education, stressful work conditions, gender discrimination, unhealthy lifestyle, and human rights violations (WHO).
For a long time, psychological science has traditionally been studying such issues as stress, aggression, conflicts, overcoming difficult life situations, personality deviations, etc. However, in the process of development, psychology started paying attention to not only to solving problem situations, but also improving the quality of life. A key distinguishing feature of the new direction was the shift in the focus to “the study of what is worth living for and how to create conditions for such a life” (Seligman, 2013).
According to Arnett (2002), in the future decades, increasing globalization will have a profound influence on human mental health and psychological development. He thinks that people will have difficulty defining and selecting cultures, as well as constructing their own identity. For these reasons mental health should be given more focus.
Organizations in all industries now operate in an environment rife with ever-greater risks and uncertainties and sweeping transformations. Whether grappling with climate change, trying to recruit in a highly competitive labor market, or assessing the implications of the latest digital technologies for their business, employers increasingly recognize that survival depends on
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getting the fullest commitment and energy from each and every employee. Yet at the same time, employee stress, burnout, work–life conflict, and disengagement have become significant problems, threatening future organizational performance (Lowe, 2020). Scholarly research has progressed beyond presenting a commercial case for workplace health promotion to now stressing how effective interventions are founded on a health culture, integration with occupational health and safety systems, and stronger links with communities. More businesses are addressing mental health concerns and attempting to create psychologically healthy and secure workplaces. In addition, many nations now have significant tools to guide measures aimed at creating healthy, safe, and prosperous workplaces. Expanded corporate sustainability frameworks have opened the door to talks concerning the long-term viability of a company's human resource policies, thanks to the evolution of what was once known as corporate social responsibility 10 years ago. Furthermore, if environmental and human rights goals connect with what employee’s value, there are new opportunities for enhancing business cultures (Lowe, 2020).
Besides, mental health depends on the level of satisfaction of basic needs. In the middle of the last century American psychologist Abraham Maslow proposed the now widely known hierarchical theory of human needs, a theory designed to explain the motivation of personality behavior (Maslow, 2001). Describing each type of basic needs that plays a role in the development of personality, A. Maslow arranges them in ascending order as follows:
physiological needs, the need for security and stability, the need for love and belonging, the need for recognition, self-respect and respect for others, cognitive needs, aesthetic needs (the need for beauty, order, symmetry, completeness, system, structure, etc.), expressive needs - the need for emotional and motor self-expression, directly related to aesthetic needs, the need for self-actualization (Maslow, 2001).
Every person has the ability and desire to progress up the ladder toward self-actualization. The gradual advancement of a person occurs when previous needs are satisfied. But new and higher needs inevitably come in their place. Psychologists qualify this phenomenon as a person's sensual enrichment, a change in his system of values. Consequently, a systematic observation of the need’s composition of the same individuals makes it possible to establish the facts of intensive replacement of old needs with new ones, which signals an ongoing change in their value system. Unfortunately, progress is often disrupted by a failure to meet lower level needs.
Divorce, job loss mandatory self-isolation are examples of life events that might lead a person to move up and down the ladder.
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1.1 Subjective well-being
At the moment, a fairly large number of works are devoted to such a concept as "subjective well- being". Most often, subjective well-being is defined as "a broad category of phenomena, consisting in the emotional reaction of people, their satisfaction with certain areas of life, as well as in their judgments about the quality of life in general (Diener, 1984).
The concept of "subjectivity" reflects the characteristics of a person's inner world, therefore, when it comes to subjective well-being, it is necessary to pay attention to the nature of the establishment by the person (subject) of the links between the reflected evaluative characteristics of external objects and phenomena, including the objective effects of their own behavior, and the characteristics of the internal the world. The analysis of the concept of subjective well-being involves the consideration of this phenomenon in the totality of external and internal instances, the system of social ties and personal relations.
J. Hall and co-authors identify 6 factors of subjective well-being: physical and mental health, freedom and self-determination, good work, satisfactory interpersonal relationships, material well-being, knowledge and understanding of the world (Hall, 2010).
L.V. Kulikov identifies the following interrelated elements as components of subjective well- being:
1) social well-being - satisfaction with one's social status, the state of society to which the individual belongs, interpersonal relationships, etc.;
2) spiritual well-being - the opportunity to acquire the riches of spiritual culture, awareness and experience of the meaning of one's life, the presence of faith (in oneself, God or fate), freedom of religion;
3) physical well-being - good physical well-being, feeling comfortable with ones body, being in good health conditions;
4) financial well-being - satisfaction with the financial side of one's life, the stability of financial income;
5) psychological well-being (mental comfort) - the coherence of mental processes, personality harmony, a sense of integrity, internal balance (Kulikov, 1997).
Also, the absence of anxiety and depression, life achievements, good family relationships are sometimes distinguished while defining subjective well-being.
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As indicators of subjective well-being, Belsky highlights: mood in the last days; feeling of happiness; life satisfaction; satisfaction with social status; satisfaction with the financial situation (Belsky, 2010). L. V. Kulikov also identified the following components of subjective well-being:
1) cognitive (assessment, understanding of various aspects of one's own being);
2) emotional (the predominant emotional coloring of attitudes towards aspects of being).
The cognitive component in the structure of subjective well-being includes satisfaction with life, while the affective component includes positive and negative emotions of varying intensity and frequency that a person experiences in any given period of time. Consequently, life satisfaction is part of the structure of subjective well-being (Kulikov, 1997).
1.2 Mental hygiene
The term "psychohygiene" or mental hygiene was officially introduced by the German psychiatrist R. Sommer in 1900. He also organized the first German psychohygienic union. In 1908, K. Bierce and A. Mayer organized the first psychohygienic society in the USA. In 1909, the American National Committee for Mental Hygiene was created. In 1910, at a conference of psychiatrists of the USA and Canada, it was decided to create the International Association for Mental Hygiene. Since 1920 psychohygienic committees, leagues and societies have been created in other European countries. In 1922 the first international conference on psychohygiene took place. The Second International Conference on Mental Hygiene was held in 1927. In 1930, the First International Congress on Mental Hygiene was held in Washington. In 1949, a mental health department and a committee of mental health experts at the World Health Organization were established (Kravtsov, 2017).
Until a few years ago, it appeared improbable that the medical profession's approach to illness prevention would quickly expand to the field of mental medicine. Research on illness prevention nowadays, on the other hand, invariably includes a chapter on mental hygiene. The fast rise of psychiatry and its recognition as a branch of scientific medicine, as well as newly found potential to employ its resources in practical efforts to solve societal issues, has torn through the boundaries that have successfully separated mental medicine for so long. (Salmon, 2006) If we would like to identify what issues or problems we should pay attention to in life, it is necessary to first define the concept or subject of mental hygiene. Mental hygiene is an interdisciplinary subject covering practical issues of human life with a focus on supporting physical and mental health despite the unfavorable effects of some unpleasant situations. It can be understood in narrower or broader intentions and therefore emphasize more physiological or deeper philosophical context. However, within a broader concept, it is appropriate to place
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mental hygiene in the context of the socialization of human individuals, which can be an important source or, the other way around, the limit of their optimal application in life (Bedrnová, 2015).
Mental hygiene as a subject of study started to appear more often in higher education only in the recent, historically relatively short period of the last 50 years. However, the knowledge basis was built much earlier and many of the mental hygiene ideas is possible to connect with development of human civilization. On the other hand, it is natural that the various thought concepts that have emerged over time have been gradually adjusted by development of scientific knowledge and changing life (Bedrnová, 2015). Yet, it is proven that even long-term knowledge about the laws of the relationship between man and the environment does not come naturally into the consciousness of most people. Many individuals rarely think and care about their mental hygiene and how they communicate with the world.
In the statistical tables of hospital reports, “grief”, “anxiety”, “death of a relative”, “fear”,
“remorse”, and “disappointment in love” were always indicated as etiological factors that are the causes of the development of the disease. A large number of cases have been attributed to such causes without understanding how they acted. It was pointed out that they are in fact a list of adverse circumstances that more or less darken the life of every person, but this does not develop mental illness. However, recent studies, especially those that followed the extremely important discoveries of Sigmund Freud, have shown that the significance of such factors can only be assessed by understanding the role they play in the mental life of each suffering person (Salmon, 2006).
It is natural that along with hygiene that aimed at preventing physical health, mental hygiene is gradually developing. Nevertheless, it has to be taken into account that the issue of people’s physical health and its safety is often associated with the effect of a little number of factors. But for mental hygiene it is typical that based on knowledge of several fields from biological till social science, it seeks for interpretation of multifactorial determination of individual life. Moreover, it defines the conditions and possibilities for the harmonious development of the personality in relation to both long-term and current natural and social factors and as a basis for solving more demanding issues related to life management, self-management, and the optimization of individual lifestyles. (Bedrnová, 2015).
An important moment in the life of every person is the whole process of shaping his personality in close connection with a narrower and wider social environment - socialization. So far, socialization is largely based on education. This means that during childhood and youth, a person's abilities and one’s practical skills are formed. Both are essential for the control of an any professional activity. On the contrary, little attention is still paid to education. It is about shaping experience and evaluation, as well as motivation to act. In general, it focuses on the
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formation of those qualities of personality that allow each person to develop a harmonious relationship with nature, full self-realization in relationships with other people and optimal self- management in terms of their relationship to themselves and how to fulfill their life. The possibilities of individuals to acquire a coherent and sufficiently rich knowledge background for the desired socialization are further reduced by gradual decrease of general educational subjects during learning process. And the fact that practical skills trainings may not be sufficiently applied also plays a role. It is therefore very common that people behave professionally only within the narrow framework of its application at their professional activity, while remaining amateurs in all other areas of their life (Bedrnová, 2015). Generally, people take care of our physical health, neglecting the mind and exposing it to suffering, depression and the influence of negativity. But the human mind is also a muscle and needs to be trained.
The inclusion of mental hygiene, supplemented by issues of lifestyle, personal and social anchoring, self-management and effective lifestyle, personal development management can be understood as a form of humanization of their purely professional training (Bedrnová, 2015).
Psychohygiene as a practice is the implementation of recreational activities, the creation of conditions for the fullest possible preservation of the mental health of large groups, small groups and an individual, the implementation of recommendations for strengthening mental health, increasing psychological stability and subjective well-being of the individual, maintaining optimal human performance. In psychohygiene, as a fundamental scientific discipline, theoretical and empirical research is carried out in order to clarify environmental factors, working and living conditions in general, personal characteristics of a person that determine the level of psychological stability, strengthening or, conversely, weakening mental health. The main tasks of psychohygiene:
• study of the nature of mental health and sanogenic potential of the individual (revitalizing thinking aimed at managing emotions through reflection),
• determination of the most important directions and rules of psychogenic practice,
• development of the basics of prevention of risk conditions, risk situations and risk behavior (dependent behavior).
Psychohygiene is divided into preventive, restorative and medical. Preventive hygiene aims at preserving the health of a person and society. Restorative hygiene seeks to take early recovery and corrective measures in life crises and conflict situations. Medical hygiene takes on existing limitations in order to cure with clinical and psychotherapeutic methods. In preventive psychohygiene, psychological approaches and methods occupy a leading position.
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Psychoprevention is a system of state, social, psychological, hygienic and medical measures aimed at ensuring a high level of mental health and preventing the occurrence of mental disorders. Psychoprevention develops and implements measures to prevent mental illnesses and their chronicity, and also contributes to the rehabilitation of persons suffering from mental disorders.
2. Stress
2.1 The concept of stress and the causes of its occurrence .
Thanks to the Canadian physiologist - Hans Selye, the concept of "stress" became popular first in the scientific community, and then came into everyday life explaining the emerging excitement, depression or anxiety by stress. In its original meaning, a state of mental stress that occurs in a person or animal under the impact of strong influences (Selye, 1987). These influences include, first of all, environmental conditions to which man had to adapt throughout his evolution. For primitive man, the stresses were hunger, thirst, cold, heat, illness, fights with wild animals, etc.
In modern conditions of socio-economic instability of society, there are many situations when a person is forced to solve problems that exceed his physical and intellectual capabilities (Trigranyan, 2008).
The term stress is often used loosely. It is widely practiced in medicine, physiology, sociology, psychology, and other sciences. As a consequence, the concept of stress is vague and ambiguous, and there are many confused and contradictory definitions in the literature, so it is necessary to define what stress is not. Stress is not just tense anxiety (although tense anxiety is stress too).
This fact should be especially emphasized. Stress is the body's non-specific response to any change in conditions that requires adaptation. To understand this, the definition “non-specific”
should be explained. Each requirement expected from the body is in some sense peculiar or specific. When it is cold, we shiver to generate more heat, and the blood vessels of the skin narrow, reducing heat loss from the surface of the body. We sweat in the sun, and the evaporation of sweat cools us. Muscular effort, such as running upstairs at maximum speed, places greater demands on the muscles and cardiovascular system. In other words, in addition to a specific effect, all agents affecting us also cause a nonspecific need to carry out adaptive functions and thereby restore a normal state. These functions are independent of the specific impact. The non-specific requirements of the impact as such are the essence of stress. In terms of the stress response, it doesn't matter if the situation we are faced with is pleasant or unpleasant. It is only the intensity of the need for restructuring or adaptation that matters. The mother, who was informed about the death of her son, is terribly shocked. If it turns out that the
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message was false, and if the son unexpectedly enters the room, she will feel the greatest joy.
The specific results of the two events - grief and joy - are completely different, but their stressful effect - the nonspecific demand for adaptation to a new situation - may be the same (Puzyrevic, 2019).
Some researchers tend to equate biological stress with nervous overload or strong emotional stress. Some researchers claim that situations associated with the performance of dangerous work and when activity is difficult (there is lack of time, the influence of distractions, interference, etc.) are stressful (Puzyrevic, 2019).
Another opinion points out that stressful conditions are those under which a person is incapable or not ready to act (novelty, unusual, suddenness of the situation), that is, inconsistency of motives for action and the ability to act adequately to the prevailing situation (Puzyrevic, 2019).
According to R. Lazarus, the study of stress requires considering the intellectual and personal characteristics that allow the individual to analyze the meaning of the acting stimulus and decide on its possible damage (Lazarus, 2006). When we are confronted with a problem, we assess its seriousness and determine whether or not we have the resources to cope. If we believe the problem is serious and do not have the resources to cope with it, we will perceive ourselves as being under stress (Lazarus, 1966)
Thus, in psychology, there is a widespread understanding of stress as a state that develops in response to a situation when a person is forced to solve a difficult task that exceeds his mental and intellectual capabilities. In literature, there is a description of such stresses as interpersonal, related to achievement, industrial, combat, informational, motivational, etc (Puzyrevic, 2019).
The difficulties one faces in life are catalysts to change and grow. Despite the tension and stress are challenging, if the situations are accepted and bring some changes, it will cause intellectual growth associated with a sense of fulfillment, growth, and happiness. This stress is called eustress and is combined with the desired effect – activation of mental processes.
On the other hand, when goals are not pursued, needs are not satisfied, or one is unable to cope with the obstacle, the negative stress will be experienced, i.e., distress (Butto, 2019).
The grade of stress that can be evoked from each event depends on the importance of the stressor for the person and its intensity, and how much difficult or easy it is to cope with it.
Therefore, the level of stress depends on seven factors (Butto, 2019):
• Level of importance of the desired thing
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• Grade of impediments to achieve them
• Sharpness of the appearance of stress
• Life experience
• Vitality level responsible for the resilience to face difficulties
• Duration of the stress
• Presence of other causes of stress
Hence, stressors may differ not only based on the qualitative aspect but also quantitatively (in intensity), and that different behavioral and physiologic indications may be dependent on these differences or a change in the stressor’s quality and/or quantity.
Under extreme situations, such as natural or man-made disasters, wars, or criminal violence, the importance of individual predisposition lowers, but even in these cases, not everyone who has encountered a traumatic event develops post-traumatic stress (Medvedev, 1982). On the other hand, due to their individual significance, everyday life events (such as changes in family relationships, the state of one's own or loved ones' health, the nature of one's activity, or one's financial situation) may turn out to be essential for the development of psychological stress leading to health disorders (Kitaev-Smyk, 1983).
An important role in the formation of stress is played by the character of socialization in childhood, when the individual significance of life events is largely determined, and patterns of response are formed (Yaroshevsky, 1989). The likelihood of occurrence of mental (and neurotic) disorders associated with stress depends on the ratio of stressors that affected a person in childhood and adulthood (Yaroshevsky, 1989).
Individuals who developed such disorders in adulthood under the influence of various life events, in childhood they experienced stressful situations caused by inappropriate behavior of the mother: her stubbornness, intolerance to other people's opinions, exaggerated claims, authoritarianism, imperiousness, emotional coldness, excessive requirements for the child, or, on the contrary, lack of self-confidence, resentment, low mood background, pessimism, etc.
There was also identified a complex of negative influence coming from the father’s side: his behavior, which lowers the child's self-esteem, lack of attention and understanding, aggressiveness or alienation, difficulties in communication (Shapar V. B. , 2008).
Other stressful situations of childhood include conflict and family instability. The stressful effects described can lead to serious disorders already in childhood (Kryukova, 2003). They also influence the onset of stress in adulthood, giving rise to a lack of a sense of basic safety (which expands the range of individually significant stressors, reducing resistance) and the formation of inadequate
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behavior patterns which further contributes to the creation of new stressful situations and prevents the effective overcoming of old ones (Kryukova, 2003).
Stress is not a set of environmental influences, but the internal mental state of the body.
Therefore, stressors affect the body not only destructively. Stress is many-sided: it is not only leading to mental and physical illnesses, but also one of the most essential tools for training and hardening, because stress helps to increase the body's resistance, trains its defense mechanisms (Yaroshevsky, 1989).
The absence or lack of stressors can lead to a decrease in the body's adaptability and a worsening of the life quality. The very lack of life impressions can be a negative stressor. In psychology, apathy, and loss of interest in life are associated with a lack of impressions. Boredom, routine, and loneliness force people to artificially create stressful situations for themselves. “Life without stress means death. And even in a dream, a person experiences slight stress” (Kitaev – Smyk, 2007). At the same time, the amplitude of life events and the individual characteristics of a person associated with the manifestation of stress determine the diversity of this concept and sometimes its insufficient clarity. “Stress, like the theory of relativity, is a scientific concept that suffers from confusion in the minds of ideas that reflect a good knowledge of the problem and a lack of understanding”, - the conclusion of Hans Selye (Kitaev – Smyk, 2007).
2.2 General adaptation theory
General adaptation theory is based on the observation that all living organisms react to stress as a basic reaction pattern, and it always stays the same, regardless of the agent used to cause the stress. The model explains three main concepts (Butto, 2019):
1. Stress is a defensive mechanism.
2. If stress is prolonged or severe, it could result in diseases of adaptation or even death.
3. Life is a three-stage adaptation to steadily renewed external stressors (Selye, 1970), (Selye 1974):
a. initial alarm / reaction to the stressor, b. resistance / adaptation to coping, c. eventual exhaustion
Alarm/reaction phase
At the first stage, the body's internal forces are mobilized, an individual is in a state of tension and alertness. The rate of all bodily functions of the autonomous nervous system increases
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dramatically, known as the “fight-or-flight” response, to give physical strength. Usually, the alarm reaction phase is not long. In some cases, its continuation may only last for a few seconds, however it might take a longer period of time (Crevecoeur, 2016).
Resistance/adaptation phase
If the stressor is too strong or continues to act, then the stage of resistance begins, which is characterized by the almost complete disappearance of signs of anxiety; the level of resistance of the body is much higher than usual. At this stage, the body begins to repair itself. If the stress factor is extremely strong or lasts for a long time without periods of relaxation, sufferers become prone to fatigue, poor concentration, irritability, frustration, and lethargy, which can lead to the exhaustion stage (Crevecoeur, 2016).
Exhaustion phase
At this stage, the stressor environment is chronic, the energy is drained, physical, emotional, and mental resources are at the point where the body no longer has the strength to fight the stress and defense patterns are broken. Systems begin to break down. Signs of exhaustion include fatigue, burnout, depression, anxiety, and decreased stress tolerance. In contrast to the first stage, when the body is under stress it leads to the release of adaptive resources, the state of the third stage is more like a “call for help” (Crevecoeur, 2016).
Figure 1 Representation of the General Adaptation Syndrome
Source: Crevecoeur, 2016
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2.3 Types of stress
H. Selye outlined the types of stress. He divided the adaptation process into distress (from Greek
"dis" - bad) and eustress (from Greek "eu" – good). The distress described by H. Selye is accompanied by psychological exhaustion, emotional fatigue, and then eustress is primarily a physiological reaction (release of adrenaline into the blood) in response to any joyful event, which gives a burst of energy, new ideas, inspiration and motivation (Selye, 1974). Sensory stimuli that have no effect on the body are referred to as neustress. It isn't regarded as good or bad. This may include news of an earthquake in a far-flung part of the globe (The Nature of stress, 2021).
The Yerkes-Dodson principle may also be used to explain the link between eustress, distress, and health. As shown in Fig.2, as stress levels rise, going from eustress to distress, performance and health diminish, and sickness and illness get higher chance to appear. The optimal level of stress is in the middle before eustress evolves into distress (The Nature of stress).
Stress-related hormones, in the right dosages, have been shown to boost physical performance and mental-processing skills like focus and attentiveness. However, once the optimal level is reached, all areas of performance start to lose efficiency. Hence, health becomes to be in danger from a physiological standpoint. Obviously, everyone's ideal level isn’t the same. As a result, the focus of any good stress-management program should be on determining individual’s ideal level of stress so that it may be used to benefit rather than being harmful to one’s health (The Nature of stress, 2021).
Figure 2 The Yerkes-Dodson curve
Source: The Nature of stress, 2021
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Also, it is worth noting that if the concept of stress by H. Selye mainly considers the biological aspects of the stress influence on the personality, then the cognitive theory of Richard Lazarus divides the types of stress into physiological and psychological and approaches the study of stress, considering the intellectual and personal characteristics of the individual, allowing to analyze the meaning acting irritant and decide on its possible harm.
Thanks to this concept, the types of stress are divided into:
• physiological, when stress causes various physical effects on the body. This can be pain, noise, taking certain medications, extreme temperatures, intense physical activity, poor nutrition, etc.
• psychological, which is divided into informational and emotional. Informational stress is associated with extreme overwork, for example, the need to comprehend a large amount of information or to make a quick decision or to solve a complex problem. Emotional stress is determined as the dissatisfaction of social needs, expectations and ambitions (Demina, 2000).
Several years of research on stress have confirmed the commonality of physiological changes that occur during physiological and psychological stress, and, at the same time, made it possible to recognize some important differences in the mechanisms of their formation.
Physiological stress arises in connection with direct physical impact, but during psychological stress the influence of a mental stressor is predetermined by complex mental processes (Demina, 2000). These processes provide an assessment of the situation and comparison with previous experience. A situation acquires the character of a stressor as a result of its mental processing, and a feeling of threat arises. This usually occurs when the psychological assessment shows an obvious inconsistency between the requirements of the environment and the needs of the subject, his mental and physical resources, which are necessary to satisfy these needs Subjective attitude to the situation, depending on individual experience (largely dating back to childhood ), personality traits, the nature of cognitive processes and mental state, is an important psychological mechanism and determines the individual significance of the stressor.
2.4 Social stress
The concept of "social stress" is used in psychological science to a greater extent. This is due to a boost in the psychological tension of modern person’s life: an increase in the volume and variety of processed information, the speed of decision-making, the combination of various types of
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social activity, the emergence of global socio-economic, political, environmental problems are affecting almost every inhabitant Earth.
The research on social stress takes the first step in the 1960s and 1970s. However, in the presence of a fairly large number of studies devoted to certain aspects of social stress, there is practically no unified understanding of the essence of this phenomenon, its functions. The spectrum of stressors that cause its occurrence has not been determined. Until now, various terms are used for determination of this phenomenon ("psychosocial stress", "socio-psychological stress",
"stress in society") (Vasilenko, 2019).
B. S. Dohrenwend and B. P. Dohrenwend defined social stressors as objective events that destroy or threaten to destroy the normal activities of the individual. Such events can include both situations that escalate the status of an individual and lower it. In both cases, social stress arises.
It is associated with a change in a person's position in society (Dohrenwend, 1973).
A more generalized definition was formulated by the American scientist H. Kaplan in the late 1990s. In his introductory article to the collection of papers on psychosocial stress, he noted that psychosocial stress has a social origin, conditioning, and manifests itself in situations of social interaction. The scientist listed role stress, negative social events (coups, wars), critical life situations, awareness or foresight of one's own or collective failure among the causes of psychosocial stress (Kaplan, 1996).
Möller-Leimkühler A.M. uses the concept of "stress in society" and investigates stress-related disorders. Among the causes of stress in society, he names intensive economic and social changes leading to the loss of social status and disruption of social identity in a significant part of the population, as well as wars and associated migrations (Möller-Leimkühler, 2004). The author noted, for example, that as a result of a severe socio-economic crisis and high levels of social stress among residents of Eastern Europe at the beginning of the 21st century, the number of people with moderate depression was almost twice as high as among residents of Western Europe. Mortality in the group of middle-aged men is four times higher (Möller-Leimkühler, 2004).
B. Andresen, F.-M. Stark and J. Gross use the concept of "social stress" when analyzing the situation of the spread of frightening rumors and panic reactions among the German population after the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant (Andresen, 1995).The researchers noted that inadequate and intimidating information can trigger a wide range of stress responses. These include:
• Emotional concern: feelings of anxiety, uneasiness, reflexive processes associated with this anxiety,
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• Information needs: interest in information regarding the fear factor, as well as behavior oriented towards the search for such information,
• Efforts to protect: all aspects of avoiding harmful factors, protecting yourself and your loved ones,
• Political demands: all aspects of political judgment and intentions regarding the fight against fear factors (Andresen, 1995).
B.T Velichkovsky also uses the concept of "social stress", speaking of socio-economic problems and high mortality in Russia in the late 20th - early 21st century. He argues for the introduction of the term "social stress", noting that this type of stress has its own characteristics. Experiencing social stress is most common for middle-aged mature people. Under social stress influence, a variety of diseases appear, and finally, its occurrence is associated with a loss of motivation for activity (Velichkovsky, 2003). The author considers the last feature to be key. During the times of intense socio-economic crisis wages fell sharply, which failed to fulfill its stimulating role in the production development on the one hand, and the people activity, on the other. The impoverishment of the population led to natural result: the population of Russia began to decrease by about a million people annually (Deng, 2018).
A. V. Shafirkin and A. S. Shtemberg also use the concept of "social stress", supplementing it with the concept of "psychoemotional tension", speaking about the change in the psychological state of the population of Russia in the 1990s. They noted that a multiple decline in the population's income, which turned out to be significantly below the subsistence level, led to the fact that anxiety among country's population began to dominate at first, and then they experienced long- term emotional stress, turning into a state of deep depression (Shafirkin, 2013).
Psychological stresses, however, are usually always linked to social circumstances in which the person is involved. A person lives in society continuously, participates in activities organized by society, and interacts with individuals and groups of people on a regular basis. Individuals are deeply social. Human consciousness is social by its nature, so almost all psychological stressors can be considered social (Vasilenko, 2019).
It is necessary to determine the range of stressors that cause the emergence of social stress and understand their classification. Based on the analysis of the results of empirical research available in science, Vasilenko has identified the following main groups of social stressors:
1. Stressors associated with macro-social events and living conditions (political, economic, social living conditions, intense social changes, etc.)
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2. Stressors associated with a change in the social status of a person, entering new social groups, mastering their norms and values; these stressors trigger the process of adaptation of the individual to the social group, its adaptation to it,
3. Stressors associated with the maintenance of the family, its requirements for the personality and problems of functioning,
4. Stressors associated with activities (professional and educational), its requirements for the individual, as well as relationships in the process of activity,
5. Stressors associated with the processing of information, its uncertainty, complexity, abundance or insufficiency, unreliability, including the perception of information from the media,
6. Stressors associated with living in big cities, with intense interaction with people, including contacts with strangers,
7. Stressors associated with wars, participation in hostilities, displacement, 8. Stressors associated with migration and emigration,
9. Stressors associated with terrorist and criminal threats,
10. Stressors associated with anthropogenic impact on nature, environmental and man-made disasters,
11. Stressors associated with the problems of achievement and self-realization of the individual, the difficulties of realizing their abilities and aspirations (Vasilenko, 2019).
The data available in science show that each of the listed groups of stressors is capable of independently causing severe stress and influencing the quality of the socio-psychological adaptation of the individual. An intense load at several levels at the same time often leads to maladjustment (Ababkov, 2004) Many scientists have noted the negative impact of social stress on life, mental health and physical health. However, there is opposite opinion claiming that low stimulation from society is also a stressor (Dohrenwend, 1973).
Based on Vasilenko, social stress also plays an adaptive role in the interaction of the individual and the social environment. The following functions can be distinguished:
• Social stress allows a person to give a generalized emotional assessment of their interaction with the social environment,
• Social stress induces the development of individual behavior aimed at optimizing one's interaction with the social environment,
• Social stress can mobilize a person (and a group of people) to form public and political activity aimed at changing group interaction and improving the social situation (Vasilenko, 2019).
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However, social stress performs its positive functions at an optimal degree of intensity. If its intensity is too low, it does not trigger adaptive reactions, if it is too high, it can contribute to maladjustment of the personality, especially with prolonged intense exposure. But it’s common for all types of stress (Vasilenko, 2019).
3. Stress management
3.1 Stress management strategies
When people are facing stress or a challenging life circumstance, they use a variety of psychological techniques to help them to cope with pressure. The concept of coping has been studied for a long time and the range of studies is extensive. In general, the term “coping” refers to a model of behavior that allows you to adapt to a stressful situation, as well as successfully resolve personal and professional problems. In other words, it is a stress response strategy.
However, research has shown that pro-active coping also takes place, and its purpose is to prepare and prevent the effects of potential stress.
Coping is thoughts and behaviors used to manage internal and external responses to stressful situations. The exact type of coping depends on the way person interacts with the stressor. The so-called active coping is designed to deal with stress and the emotions it causes. This approach in the context of COVID-19 mainly involves a problem-solving approach (for example, home schooling for children). There are other approaches, such as avoidance (for example, avoiding thoughts of COVID-19), denial (for example, denying the existence of the virus).
One of the modern classifications identifies three broad types of coping strategies:
1. Cognitive adaptation (change in attitude to the situation: humor, denial, change of goals and values, in other words, "you cannot influence the situation - change your attitude towards it")
2. Behavioral adaptation (obtaining new competencies and theoretical knowledge that can help to cope with the problem)
3. Emotionally oriented strategies (relaxation, meditation, mindfulness practice)
Stress is multifaceted in its manifestations. It plays an important role in the occurrence of not only mental disorders, but also, based on the American Institute of Stress, it causes from 75 to 90 percent of all diseases (Marksberry, 2021). Therefore, the search for ways to manage stress, to maintain physical and psychological health in modern society, is becoming one of the most important areas of psychological work and makes it especially relevant research related to the study of the causes of stress and ways to overcome it.
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Since the idea of coping is about providing psychological adaptation to a situation, solving a problem, or restoring psychological well-being, it is important to determine the extent to which different coping strategies contribute to these processes. The concept of "coping" implies
"overcoming", therefore "coping strategies" refers to adaptive or constructive strategies aimed at reducing the experience of stress and resolving the situation. But with this, some coping strategies are still maladaptive manifestations leading to a decrease in the psychological and physical well-being of a person. Usage strategies such as the use of alcohol, drugs often relieve stress, but further leads to an increase in the level of depression, anxiety, and poor health.
If we talk about the effectiveness of coping strategies, then it is necessary to take into account a number of factors:
1) culture,
2) the context of the stressful situation, 3) the level of emotions and stress, 4) the purpose of coping.
In general, the most productive coping strategies include proactive coping, strategies for actively coping with problems, planning activities, reaching out to other people for social support, coping focused on finding meaning and strategies for humor. Studies within the attributive approach to motivation and in the field of cognitive-behavioral therapy show that, from the point of view of maintaining psychological well-being, it is productive to turn to optimistic thinking strategies that include constructive thoughts about the causes of failure, emphasizing controlled aspects of the situation, focus on constructive future actions, and not blame yourself for what happened.
Sigmund Freud was the first one who introduced the concept of defense mechanism. According to his theory, defense mechanisms are certain reactions of the brain to existing external stimuli that arise at the unconscious level. By distorting reality, they help reduce the threat of stress and anxiety. The main purpose of the action of protective psychological mechanisms is to protect a person from possible experiences caused by contradictions between social requirements and personal views of a person.
The most used mechanisms are (Melnik, 2004):
• Repression
This defense mechanism is a basis, on which more complex defense mechanisms are given an impulse to develop. This mechanism represents a special "forgetting" or "removal" from the conscious level of thoughts and feelings, which act as a source of anxiety and psychological discomfort. As a result of the action of this mechanism, events that preceded the onset of psychological trauma disappear from memory. However, it should be noted that the defense
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mechanism of repression is not absolute and there is always the possibility that repressed memories will find a way out. In this regard, a person spends a large amount of energy to suppress unpleasant memories and thus the sphere of personality development as a whole suffers.
• Displacement
The action of this mechanism is the redirection of attention from a threatening object to another.
An example of this mechanism is the behavior of a child who was punished by his parents and takes out his irritation on younger siblings or toys, offending and breaking them. For adults, this mechanism also manifests in taking out negative feelings on a weaker person, pets, or surrounding objects.
• Projection
It is a mechanism that transfers person’s thoughts and feelings to the people around him, trying to relieve himself of responsibility for his own troubles and failures. An example of the manifestation of this mechanism is a situation in which a student did not prepare for the exam.
He tries to explain the received bad mark by the fact that the teacher is simply biased towards him as a person.
• Rationalization
It is a deliberate distortion of the surrounding reality by a person in order to maintain a high level of self-esteem. An example of the manifestation of the rationalization mechanism can be the behavior of a man, who is denied by a woman of his interest. Denying to admit failure, the man convinces himself and the people around him that she is unattractive and that she has many negative qualities that have nothing to do with him. In this way, the man maintains self-esteem and peace of mind.
• Sublimation
It is a psychological mechanism that allows a person to change their impulses and attitudes, so that they become acceptable for a given social environment. It is sublimation that is considered in psychology to be one of the healthiest and correct mechanisms of psychological protection of the individual, due to the fact that a person not only restrains the negative impulses he has but changes the form of their manifestation in accordance with his capabilities and the norms of the social environment.
• Regression
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It is a kind of return to childhood patterns of behavior. The action of this mechanism occurs with the aim of protecting the individual from the emerging shocks and stress. Crying is a main example of this defense mechanism.
• Reactive formation
It is expressed on two levels: in the process of suppressing emerging negative or unacceptable impulses. And simultaneously with this, there is the formation of motives of the opposite content at the level of the unconscious and subconscious. Most often, a similar mechanism manifests itself in public life. For example, in society it is considered extremely indecent to actively manifest sexual desire. Thus, a woman who has a similar feature actively suppresses it in herself and, in order to earn approval and social status, acts as an active fighter for morality and high morality.
• Denial
It is a defense mechanism, which consists in a person's refusal to admit the facts of the occurrence of negative and traumatic events.
3.2 Healthy lifestyle
Nowadays an individual more and more often must live at the limit of one’s capabilities, in rapidly changing conditions and in constant stress. Therefore, in order to preserve and strengthen his health and be able to overcome stressful influences, person must create his own way of life and individual system of behavior, which will best ensure his achievement of physical, spiritual and social well-being.
In order to form a system of a healthy lifestyle, it is necessary to know the factors that have a positive effect on health. This is adherence to the daily regimen, rational nutrition, hardening, physical education and sports, good relationships with people around and psychological balance.
Factors that negatively affect health should also be taken into account: smoking, alcohol and drug use, emotional and mental stress when communicating with others, unfavorable environmental conditions in places of residence.
Psychological balance, as a component of psychological stability, means the ability to minimize the negative impact in the emergence of tension, or the ability to maintain tension within acceptable limits. Balance is also the ability to avoid extremes in the power of response to events (Volozin, 1987).
The next component of stress management is physical activity. Physical activity is understood as any muscle activity that allows person to maintain optimal physical shape and ensure good health. People who are constantly engaged in physical activity are less prone to stress, they cope
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better with anxiety, depression, anger and fear. They are not only able to quickly relax, but also know how to relieve emotional stress through exercise (Zholdak, 1992). A 2019 study published in the journal JAMA Psychiatry confirmed that physical activity can help manage chronic stress and prevent depression. Scientists have found that moderate exercise has a positive effect on the hippocampus - a gyrus of the brain involved in emotional reactions and memory mechanisms.
Sometimes a poor psychological state interferes with starting to do sport. When there is no strength, emotions come to the fore. At such moments, it is useful to remember why sport is useful.
The body constantly reacts to certain stressors, and these reactions are different for each person.
The level of the destructive effect of these reactions depends primarily on the level of the body's defense, which can be increased only through adequate nutrition. Rational nutrition is nutrition that ensures growth, normal development, and vital activity of a person, contributing to the improvement of his health and the prevention of diseases. Rational nutrition involves:
1. Energy balance.
2. Balanced diet.
3. Compliance with the diet regime.
Also, supportive social contacts are believed to have a positive effect on subjective well-being and preventing or relieving stress. It is found out that the help of family members and friends has the most important influence on their behavior. Emotional support of a loved one gives physiological benefits. “When we are close to a person we know - even just with an acquaintance, not to mention a husband or wife - such different processes can occur in our body as a slowdown of the heart rate, improving the immune system and reducing depression (Allen, 2002). Social media communication helps people to cope with stress and improve well-being This approach allows them to cope with various problems, for example, social media are able to help people who find it difficult to communicate with others. On the Internet, without seeing the interlocutor, it is easier to communicate, so social networks can be the first step towards starting an active life. There people can find someone with common interests and unite in groups, share information and good mood. And networks also provide the ability to post your own content to feel the approval and recognition that users express through likes and comments. An additional convenience of social networks is relative anonymity, hiding behind an avatar and a nickname, an insecure person will be able to defend his point of view, which he would hardly have dared to do outside the virtual space. The most valuable thing is that the successes acquired in social networks do not interfere with real life at all. Recharged with positive emotions online, people often feel more confident in life outside the network, and many receive a powerful incentive to be creative.
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3.3 Maladaptive coping strategies
Maladaptive coping strategies are unhealthy ways of coping with stress, among which is overeating, alcohol usage, smoking, gambling, and or usage of illegal drugs. Maladaptive coping strategies can lead to a rapid sedative effect, but the long-term effects are negative. The strategy is focused on the reaction itself and is aimed at correcting the emotional state of the individual to a greater extent than at external stressors. This type of behavior is rather manipulative, destructive and has a negative impact on mental and physical health as well as overall well-being which leads to a lowering of stress tolerance (Aghazade, 2008).
Maladaptive coping strategies include:
• “Humility”, “confusion”, “ignorance” - passive forms of behavior with refusal to overcome difficulties due to lack of belief in oneself and intellectual resources, with underestimation of troubles on purpose.
• "Suppression of emotions", "submissiveness", "self-accusation", "aggressiveness" - behaviors characterized by a depressed emotional state, a state of hopelessness, obedience and exclusion of other feelings, the experience of anger and blame on oneself and others.
• "Active avoidance", "retreat" - behavior that involves avoiding thoughts of trouble, passivity, solitude, isolation, the desire to get away from active interpersonal contacts, refusal to solve problems (Aghazade, 2008).
The study on perceived stress and coping strategies during the COVID-19 shows that even though students reported relatively good knowledge of healthy coping strategies, while being under a high level of stress during pandemic made them choose maladaptive coping strategies (Thai, 2021).
4. Loneliness
4.1 Definition of loneliness
"Loneliness" in modern life is almost as popular term as "globalization", "Internet" or "political correctness." It is paradoxical that despite the rapid pace of development of all communication networks (telephones, mobile communications, media, the Internet, etc.), as well as the constant increase in the density of the urban population, more and more people feel lonely.
Since the emergence of the rudiments of human social nature, which gave rise to the duality of natural and social principles in the person, the phenomena of loneliness has been a critical concern for understanding. A person could not exist in isolation from others, outside of society, from the time of his birth, yet he could not survive in society without his own identity.
