PRAGUE UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS AND BUSINESS
FACULTY OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
International Business
Consumer Perception of Brand Hollister on the Czech Market (Master’s Thesis)
Author: Bc. Lenka Kotková, 2021 Supervisor: Ing. Květa Olšanová, Ph.D.
Declaration
I declare to have worked on the master’s thesis „Consumer Perception of Brand Hollister on the Czech Market“ on my own under the supervision of Ing. Květa Olšanová, Ph.D.
All used literature and other scientific resources are listed in accordance with regulations in the attached literature listing.
In Prague 28. 4. 2021 …………...………..
Signature
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my supervisor Ing. Květa Olšanová, Ph.D. for advice and professional suggestion during writing my master’s thesis. Many thanks also belong to my friends and my dear family who supported me during the whole writing process.
Content
Introduction ... 1
1. Brand ... 3
1.1 Brand elements ... 4
1.2 Brand identity ... 8
1.3 Brand positioning ... 14
1.4 Brand image ... 17
1.5 Brand equity ... 19
1.5.1. Aaker’s Five Assets Model... 20
1.5.2. Customer-based brand equity (CBBE) model ... 22
1.5.3. Brand equity measurements ... 26
2. Hollister Co. brand as a part of Abercrombie and Fitch Co. ... 30
2.1 Abercrombie and Fitch Co. brand portfolio ... 31
3. Hollister Co. brand identity of the previous research... 34
3.1 Brand elements ... 34
3.2 Product portfolio ... 38
3.3 Brand positioning ... 40
3.4 Brand competitors ... 43
4. Survey... 48
4.1 Marketing research – empirical study ... 48
4.2 Research method ... 51
5. Data Analysis ... 54
5.1 Analysis of the online questionnaire ... 54
5.2 Analysis of the individual in-depth online interviews ... 66
6. CBBE of Hollister brand based on research results ... 78
7. Limitations ... 85
8. Recommendations ... 86
Conclusion ... 87
References ... 89
Appendix ... 100
List of Pictures
Picture 1: House of brands Procter&Gamble on US market ... 5
Picture 2: Types of brand architecture ... 6
Picture 3: Brand Identity Prism ... 13
Picture 4: Perceptual mapping of brand Nike ... 16
Picture 5: Aaker's Five Assets Model ... 22
Picture 6: Customer-Based Brand Equity Pyramid ... 24
Picture 7: Hybrid type of brand architecture of Abercrombie & Fitch Co. ... 32
Picture 8: Hollister logo ... 34
Picture 9: Hollister shop design transformation ... 36
Picture 10: Brand Identity Prism of Hollister Co. in the USA ... 38
Picture 11: Price range overview of brand Hollister in Euros in online store for Europe ... 41
Picture 12: Perceptual map of brand Hollister and its competitors in the USA ... 46
Picture 13: Marketing Research Process ... 49
Picture 14: Funnel of survey respondents... 55
Picture 15: Images of logo and shopping bags design of the Hollister brand ... 64
Picture 16: Consumer-Based Brand Equity of the Hollister brand on the Czech market ... 84
List of Figures
Figure 1: Number of respondents in each age category ... 55Figure 2: Distribution of respondents into monthly net income categories ... 56
Figure 3: Brand recall - Answers of "What American apparel brand do you know?" ... 57
Figure 4: Word associations of Hollister brand ... 60
Figure 5: Semantic differential scale for Hollister brand ... 63
List of Tables
Table 1: Interviewees profiles ... 67Introduction
Nowadays the world is overwhelmed by products and services that are supplied to customers for the satisfaction of their needs. Nevertheless, as there are many products on the market that can be very similar if not the same, it would be impossible to identify a specific product without its brand. The brands give to the products life by assigning them a name, personality, associations, features, and so on. Even that every product has a brand, some of them are loved by customers more than others due to the right structure of brand equity and accurate communication of the brand identity.
One of the brands that can strongly attract customers in an apparel category is Hollister Co. The brand operates especially on the American market and is known for its endless Californian summer and beautiful beaches with surfers. Many customers that have got into contact with the Hollister brand tend to fall in love with it. But why?
What makes the brand so special that the customers like it, if not love it?
The purpose of this master’s thesis is to identify an image and customer-based brand equity of the Hollister brand on the Czech market. Hence, the Hollister brand perception by customers on the Czech market is going to be analyzed, so that a consumer’s perspective detects key facets of this brand in terms of awareness level, brand associations, perceived quality, brand loyalty, and the general Hollister brand image on the Czech market. The findings will provide an evaluation of strength of the Hollister brand equity which can discover new opportunities for its improvement.
The research problem is based on a set of six research questions that maintain the right direction for achievement of the purpose of this thesis. The research questions are:
RQ 1: “What is a level of brand awareness of the Hollister brand on the Czech market?”,
RQ 2: “What brand associations does the Hollister brand has according to the Czech customers?” .
RQ 3: “What is a Hollister brand image on the Czech market, and does it reflect the brand identity?”,
RQ 4: “How is perceived a quality of the Hollister brand by current and potential customers on the Czech market?”,
RQ 5: “What is a relationship referring to a brand loyalty between the Hollister brand and customers on the Czech market?”,
RQ 6: “How strong is the Hollister consumer-based brand equity?”.
The thesis is divided into four major sections. The first part of the thesis includes a literature review that provides a theoretical introduction with descriptions of suitable models that are essential for further parts of the thesis. Firstly, a brand definition will be presented, a brand architecture will be described, and key brand elements will be emphasized. This will be followed by a brand identity that will be introduced through two models from Aaker and Kapferer. The other part of the theoretical section will be brand positioning and its determination methods. The next will be a brand image which will be slightly described. Lastly, literature about brand equity, especially consumer-based brand equity, and its measurements will be critically evaluated, and based on that the most accurate model will be chosen.
The second part of this thesis will concern a Hollister Co. brand as a part of Abercrombie and Fitch Co. where will be provided a brief overview of the Hollister brand in terms of its history, parent company, brand architecture, and its portfolio.
The second section will include a Hollister Co. brand identity based on secondary data research as well. There will be described the Hollister brand elements, a brand identity prism with its essential associations, product portfolio, brand positioning through the 4P model, and Hollister brand competitors pictured on a brand perception map.
The third part will review a methodology that will be used for answering the research questions. Methods for the collection of primary data will be deeply described and research will be conducted. As research methods will be carried out a combination of a quantitative method through an online questionnaire and qualitative method by in-depth interviews which will serve for building a complex picture about the brand perception.
The last part of the thesis will be focused on data analysis of the Hollister brand and their interpretation from both research methods separately. It will be followed by putting results together into a customer-based brand equity model which will serve for answering the research questions. This part will be concluded by the limitation that arose during the research and possible recommendations for the Hollister brand equity improvement.
1. Brand
Even more, a brand attaches a great significance level in the current world and it becomes one of the most essential key tools not only for marketing but also for business as well. The word “brand” has many definitions for instance, according to the American Marketing Association (AMA) it can be defined as: “a name, term, design, symbol, or any other feature that identifies one seller’s goods or service as distinct from those of other sellers.”1 In other words, a brand serves as a medium to be easily recognizable and divergent from other competitive products or services on the market.2
According to Aaker, a brand can be described as “the set of expectations, memories, stories and relationships that, taken together, account for a consumer's decision to choose one product or service over another’’3In comparison to a previous definition, here a brand is a medium of intangible assets which aims to build unique images and relations in the mind of partners and customers.4
However, it is crucial to bear in mind that a brand and a product are two different terms. A product is interpreted by Kotler as: “anything that can be offered to a market for attention, acquisition, use or consumption. It includes physical objects, services, personalities, place, organizations and ideas.”5While a product is manufactured, a brand is created only through communication. In contrast to a brand, a product changes and has specific characteristics. Speaking about a brand, some attributes are perceived by customers and are related to brand image.6
1AMA. American Marketing Association, What is Marketing? - The Definition of Marketing, [online]. Copyright © 2020, American Marketing Association. [cit. 10.11.2020]. Available at: https://www.ama.org/the-definition-of- marketing-what-is-marketing/
2Keller, K.L., Strategic Brand Management – Building, Measuring, and Managing Brand Equity, [online]. Pearson, 2013, global edition, 4th edition, [cit. 10.11.2020]. p. 23-31., ISBN 13:978-0-273-77941-4. Available at:
http://brandabout.ir/wp-content/uploads/Keller_Strategic_Brand_ManagementBookFi.pdf
3 Aaker, D.A., Joachimsthaler, E., Brand Leadership, [online]. The Free Press, New York, 2000, [cit.17.11.2020]. ISBN ,-684-83924-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=lfuL2aefJSsC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&c ad=0#v=onepage&q=identity&f=false
4DE CHERNATONY, L., Značka: od vize k vyšším ziskům.Brno: Computer Press, 2009, Praxe manažera, [cit. 10.11.2020], p. 17. ISBN 978-80-251-2007-1.
5Jain, A. K., Jambhekar, A., Rao, T. P. R., Rao, S.S., Marketing Information Products and Services – A primer for Librarians and Information Professionals, [online]. Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad, 1999, [cit. 10.11.2020], p. 109.ISBN 088936-817-1. Available at: https://books.google.cz/books?id=F-
5gKE_EuFAC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
6PŘIBOVÁ, M., Strategické řízení značky: Brand management. Praha: Ekopress, 2000, [cit. 10.11.2020], p. 18. ISBN 80-86119-27-0.
Having a brand that represents the core values of a business, ensures its straightforward identification among many other brands on the market. Moreover, the purpose of branding is to support the audience’s perception in a way that leads to a higher brand awareness level and more intense customer loyalty.2
1.1 Brand elements
As mentioned in the chapter above, brand elements are name, logos, symbols, slogans, design, and other characteristics that represent a product or service and differentiate it from others.
The first key element is a brand name that arises in many different ways for example based on people’s names (e.g. Porsche automobiles), place’s names (e.g. American Airlines), animal’s names (e.g. Dove soap), or other names (e.g. Apple computers).
A name can be also formulated on essential attributes that are typical for its products or provided advantages (e.g. Whole Foods Market). There are numerous opportunities for creating a brand name and they are widely adopted not only for names but also for the creation of logos and symbols.2
Referring to a brand name, it has two basic types of architecture to be used.
The first is a single brand name used for related products which is called family branding or umbrella branding (branded house). Meaning that all products have one identity and contribute to the strength of the main brand.7 A relevant example is Google with products Google maps, Google translate, Google books, and so on. Another brand strategic name form is using a single brand name for all product categories or portfolios with their respective brands and products that are covered by the top brand which is mostly used for large corporations. This is known as a house of brands because it consists of many brands. Each brand involves numerous products and has its own identity.2 For instance, a company Procter & Gamble includes many other brands for a specific product category, known as a house of brands, such as a dental product category that includes brands like Crest and Oral-B, a hair product category with brands
7Dahlen, M., Lange, F., Smith, T., Marketing Communications – A Brand Narrative Approach, [online]. John Wiley &
Sons Ltd, 2010, [cit. 10.11.2020], p. 225. ISBN 978-0-470-31992-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=rLt48XwnW1cC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
Pantene and Aussie, a baby diapers category involving bands such as Pampers and Luvs, etc.8 (See the umbrella branding overview of Procter&Gamble in the picture below.)
Picture 1: House of brands Procter&Gamble on US market
Source: Author, [24.12.2020], data from: https://us.pg.com/brands/
However, nowadays companies employ a combination of branded house and house of brands, which is called sub-branding (hybrid brand). A hybrid type of brand architecture includes a favored form of brand extension, meaning that a new product or a product category has the main brand name and a new name. This enables each brand to have a connection to the main brand, but it can have a different position and personality.9 For instance, the portfolio of a hybrid brand of Coca Cola includes not only Coca Cola drinks like Coca Cola light and Coca Cola zero, but also brands such as Sprite, Fanta, Minute Maid, and others.10 All three types of brand architecture are captured in Picture 2 on the next page.
8Brands, P&G, [online]. Procter & Gamble, United States, 2021, [24.12.2020]. Available at: https://us.pg.com/brands/
9Bedbury, S., A New Brand World – 8 Principles for Achieving Brand Leadership in the 21st Century, [online]. Penguin Books, 2002, [cit. 25.12.2020], p.76. ISBN 978-14-200190-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=T4oIHkZX3fkC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
10The Coca-Cola Company, [online]. The Coca-Cola Company, 2020, [cit. 25.12.2020]. Available at: https://www.coca- colacompany.com/brands
Source: Singh S., Welcome to class of Brands and Brand Development, SlidePlayer, [online].
Copyright © 2021 SlidePlayer.com Inc. [cit. 25.12.2020]. Available at: https://slideplayer.com/slide/12723768/
The following feature of a brand is URL (uniform resources locators) also known as a domain name. Usually, every company that tends to have their own specific URL for their business must pay for creating and registration of their name.
Since the Internet takes the lead in the current digitalized world, the number of domain names increases rapidly. Even there arises a threat of unlicensed use by others on the internet, a government regulates it by law to protect a trademark of registered companies.2
Among visual elements is placed a logo which is a graphic mark that facilitates the identification of a company or product on the market. The key function is in building brand awareness. The faster a logo is recognized, the more valuable intangible asset it is. A logo can be in a form of a word like a company name which consists only of text, also called a trademark. The second form of the logo is a picture design, which is intensively used among sports brands such as brand Nike and its logo swoosh. When the brand uses only a non-word mark logo, it is called a symbol.11 Equally, just as a logo, a symbol is a visual character that is in the style of a brand’s personality. In some logos are hidden meanings that rise the mission
11Hitchens, P., Hitchens, J., Create the Perfect Brand, [online]. UK, A Macmillan Company, 2010, [25.12.2020].
Available at: https://books.google.cz/books?id=hB4egGx-w-sC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
Picture 2: Types of brand architecture
of a company, for instance, the FedEx logo has a white arrow inside of the word that is situated between the letters E and X, so it emphasizes its fast delivery.12 Generally, there arise some problems connected with logos and symbols. For instance, customers can straightforwardly recognize it but are not able to link it to any certain product.
Nevertheless, a vast advantage of logos is an opportunity to modify and update the logo over time, so it is fashionable and present-day, but the changes cannot be overly substantial because it could lead to unrecognition of an original brand. 2
Besides mentioned brand elements belong characters that describe a particular kind of a brand symbol referring to personal characteristics or representing a human.
It improves the process of identification and understanding of a brand mission because customers can clearly imagine characteristics that a brand stands for. Considering innovation, it is necessary to maintain brand characters up-to-date to a target audience, especially when they are referring to a real personality. 2
A further brand element is a slogan that is a short tagline or motto advertising core information of a brand.13 A slogan is mostly included in commercials, on the packaging, and in campaigns where it plays a critical role. It strongly builds efficiency of brand equity, especially brand awareness, due to an embracement of appropriate “hooks” that get the message to customers. It can include components such as rhymes or directly the brand name.A worldwide known slogan is for instance “Just do it.” of brand Nike.14
A musical type of element is a jingle that is composed by an executive of music who involves catchy chorus lines to easily get in the mind of listeners. Nevertheless, it carries only an abstract nonvisual introduction of the brand. Jingles can strongly support brand awareness by replaying them. In addition, they can be created in an entertaining way that makes them more memorable. Nowadays jingles are an essential element for radio broadcasting and TV commercials.2
One of the most important elements is packaging and its design because it has immense power on a customer’s decision at a point-of-sale and can stimulate impulsive purchases. Aesthetic aspects of packaging are size, shape, color, graphical design, material, and text which are taken into consideration for setting a top cover for the product. Having
12Kenton, W., Logo, Investopedia: Sharper insight, better investing. [online]. Investopedia, [cit. 5.1.2021]. Available at: https://www.investopedia.com/terms/l/logo.asp
13Kotler, P., B2B Brand Management, [online]. USA, Springer, 2001, [cit. 5.1.2021]. Available at: https://books.google.cz/books?id=bcmo-WZtOvQC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
14Berman, M., Street-smart Advertising: How to Win the Battle of the Buzz, [online]. USA, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2007, [cit.5.1.2021], p. 84. ISBN:978-0-7425-4137-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=CiEbSTWpPwQC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
a stunning design of wrappers or boxes for a product enhances its value for customers.15 However, it has also the basic function of protection and smooth transportation. Moreover, it carries information about the composition of a product and a description of usage.16 A highly strategic feature for packaging is color that enables fast recognition such as purple color for a chocolate Milka. The packaging is strongly open to innovations in terms of facilitating the way of opening, holding, using, storing, etc.For example, a fruit snack in a tube for kids that can be eaten easily without any preparation and mess.2 A shape of packaging can take a significant position with reference to the recognition of a brand.
For instance, Coca-Cola and its typical shape of a glass bottle or Aloe vera drink in a square bottle.17
Moreover, a brand is more than all the elements mentioned above, other important part is a level of awareness, reputation, excellence on the market, and so on. A brand can be a combination of many elements, however, it is essential to preserve cohesive and build coherent brand identity. Commonly, every single element is selected to endorse the other and establish a smooth connection among them.2
As the brand elements are an essential part of each brand, their analysis is going to be included in brand research.
1.2 Brand identity
In this day and age, every powerful brand should be consistent and transparent in terms of its characters and associations that the brand searches to build and represent.3 Kapferer describes a brand identity in a relatively general manner. He says that: “identity expresses the brand’s tangible and intangible characteristics – everything that makes the brand what it is, and without which it would be something different.”18
15Johnston, L., Social Media and Networking: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications, [online]. USA, Information Science Reference, 2016, [ci. 05.01.2021], p. 777. ISBN: 978-1-4666-8615-1. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=IYkfCgAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
16Krishno, N., Marketing Aptitude, [online]. Disha Publication, [cit. 05.01.2021], p. 126-127. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=Oa01DwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
17Chitturi, R., Londono, J. C., Amezquita, A., The Influence of Color and Shape of Package Design on Consumer Preference: The Case of Orange Juice [online]. Publishing management journals – Researchleap.com. [cit. 05.01.2021].
Available at: https://researchleap.com/influence-color-shape-package-design-consumer-preference-case-orange-juice/
18Kapferer, J. N., The new strategic brand management – Creating and sustaining brand equity long term, [online].
Kogan Page, London and Philadelphia, 4th edition, 2008, [cit. 9.11.2020]. ISBN 978 0 7494 5085 4. Available at:
https://razi.ac.ir/documents/439798/0/THE%20NEW%20STRATEGIC%20BRABD.pdf
However, taking a closer look at a brand identity, it performs visual elements that describe a vision of a brand and emphasize its uniqueness.19 According to Aaker, a brand identity can be defined as: “a unique set of brand associations that the brand strategist aspires to create or maintain. These associations represent what the brand stands for and imply a promise to customers from the organization members.’’20 In other words, it is how a company wants to be perceived as a brand by its target group on the market.
For an accurate determination of the brand identity, it is better to begin with a general description followed by more detailed information. The success of a brand identity is based on the logo, colors, style, tone of voice, and other aspects that support the unique features of a brand. It is a medium that involves not only a vision, but also a mission, personal characteristics, and core values.20
Brand identity perspectives – Aaker
Aaker divided a brand identity into four perspectives – brand as a product, brand as an organization, brand as a person, and brand as a symbol. These four attitudes help companies to easily choose the right brand elements and realize core values.19
A brand as a product should always include attributes that are essential for its identity, maintain its beneficial associations, and highlight a product in a product category. 19 For instance, when somebody asks for an ice-cream and a brand Ben & Jerry’s is recalled, it means that the brand Ben & Jerry’s is associated with products in an ice-cream class. When a product has accurately chosen attributes that are linked to purchase or usage, it can bring benefits in terms of functionality and emotions. Products can rise a bar by providing something additional such as services or further features.3 Other important elements of product attributes are quality and value.19 Quality is mostly considered as a core piece of identity that determines the position of a product on the market. Referring to value, it is closely associated with the quality of a product because it enhances strategy by price level.21 Further associations are related to events for which a product is used, however, it does not mean that a product cannot
19Aaker, D. A., Building Strong Brands, [online]. New York, The Free Press, Copyright © 1996 by David A. Aaker.
[Cit. 10.11.2020]. ISBN 0-02-900151-X. Available at:https://www.pdfdrive.com/building-strong-brands- e156626240.html
20Aaker, D. A., Building Strong Brands, [online]. New York, The Free Press, Copyright © 1996 by David A. Aaker.
[Cit. 10.11.2020], p. 68. ISBN 0-02-900151-X. Available at:https://www.pdfdrive.com/building-strong-brands- e156626240.html
21Clifton, R., Brands and Branding, [online]. The Economist, Second Edition, Bloomberg Press, New York, 2009, [cit. 10.11.2020], p. 45. ISBN 978-1-57660-350-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=Y7lOnm10nTUC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
be used for something else. Some associations are based on a type of user that has something in common. The last aspect of the product as a brand is an association with a country, for instance, watches Swatch are strongly linked as a Swiss product.19 Customers expect a better quality of a product when it is from a country that specializes in its production. Some products purport to be from a specific country by its brand name, the so-called country-of-origin effect. For example, a pizza Guseppe sounds like an Italian product so people expect a high-quality product from Italy, however, it is a Czech brand.22
The second perspective of brand identity is a brand as an organization that pays attention to innovations, attempts in quality, and focuses on the environment and atmosphere that is established by employees and employers, culture, values, and other components of a company.19 It reflects in attributes and behavior of people in a company as well. A brand as an organization can be hardly copied because an image is based on behavior and innovations which are difficult to assess. This type of image can provide additional benefits such as respect or enthusiasm.23 It can be local which means that it adapts to a concrete market, or global, so it is general for all markets without any changes.19
A further brand identity perspective is a brand as a person that signifies emphasizing characteristics regarding enriched and attractive aspects. A brand is capable of human values by which it communicates such as formality, humor, trustworthiness, brightness, friendliness, and much more. Alternatively stated, it says for who a brand speaks and what it is like. Brand as a person includes characteristics that provide a basis for diversity, value proposition, and relationships with customers. 19
The last perspective is a brand as a symbol that focuses on visual design, brand tradition, and metaphors.19 A well-built symbol can ensure consistency of brand identity and boosts its recall and recognition.3 A symbol is a strongly visible layer for which is a typical logo, colors of a company, design of company buildings, cars, leaflets and so on.19
22Gelder, V. S., Global Brand Strategy: Unlocking Branding Potential Across Countries, Cultures & Markets, [online].
Library of Congress, Great Britain, 2003, [cit.10.11.2020], p. 113. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=fK9BvGXgGiEC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
23Gelder, V. S., Global Brand Strategy: Unlocking Branding Potential Across Countries, Cultures & Markets, [online].
Library of Congress, Great Britain, 2003, [cit.10.11.2020], p. 57. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=fK9BvGXgGiEC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
Kapferer’s Brand identity prism
A further generally used identity model is from a consultant Jean-Noël Kapferer who created a brand identity prism that consists of six facets situated in a hexagonal shape.
According to Kapferer, a brand should have not only its character and values but should also support customers by giving them a solution for their problems and needs. This model represents communication between a communicator (situated on a top) who sends a piece of information and is represented by an organization and a recipient (situated at the bottom) who receives it. A brand creates a picture for itself and a picture of its recipient. Between the sender and receiver is a relationship that arises during the communication which is divided into three external and three internal aspects.24
The first part of the brand identity prism is a physique that represents qualities and physical specific characteristics. It is an external aspect that includes noticeable parts and features that customers imagine when they hear a concrete brand name.24 Among physical features are integrated physical characteristics, logo, colors, shop design, etc. It describes a brand prototype in terms of concreteness, usage, and appearance.2 It mostly embraces a flagship product that represents a brand’s qualities.24 As an example, it can be brand Coca-Cola with its typical shape of a glass bottle and red color in the logo.25
On the opposite side is a personality that is situated in internal aspects. It includes all characters that a product or service represents and says what type of a person it would be if it was a human.24 A brand adopts human characteristics and thanks to them it builds up its own character which helps to target audience to relate to it. Personality is an intangible aspect of a brand and an important part of its psychological function.2 Having a spokesperson or a representative of a brand facilitates the creation of a personality. It can also include a person that is strongly connected to a brand, for instance, Apple and Steeve Jobs. Consumers can identify themselves with a brand’s personality or project themselves into it.26
The further internal aspect of brand identity prism is culture. It consists of a company’s culture which might be informal, strict, friendly, etc. and it usually reflects
24Kapferer, J.N., The New Strategic Brand Management - Advanced Insights & Strategic Thinking, [online]. Les Editions d’Organization, 2012, 5th edition, [cit. 10.11.2020]. ISBN 978-0-7494-6515-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=JnK8pRjSGZUC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
25Attwood, J., Graphic Products, [online]. Heinemann Educational Publishers, Oxford, 2002, [cit. 10.11.2020]. ISBN:
0-435-41780-0. Available at: https://books.google.cz/books?id=6hm1M7R4ObwC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
26Stewart, B., Packiging Design, [online]. Laurence King Publishing, 2007, [cit. 11.11.2020]. ISBN 978 1858029078.
a culture of a country of origin.24 When a brand is strong, it brings not only advantages and a well-built personality but also an inspiration for customers. Culture is a key aspect of a brand identity because besides its creation it also communicates it.27 It expresses a company working on its mission in everyday life which has an impact on employees as well as customers who engage in this process by purchasing a product.28 The cultural aspect is mainly the most significant difference among competitive brands such as Nike and Adidas24, where Nike is represented by American culture while Adidas by European culture.
Switching to an external aspect, the fourth part carries a relationship that is signified between a sender and receiver. The most obvious moment of building a relationship is when providing a service.24A relationship is especially essential for service brands because it builds networks and strengthens their position.29 As an asset, it can be considered in both forms, tangible and intangible. A brand tends to maintain a healthy and prospering connection with its customers for the whole time that includes not only the first interaction but also the after-sales service. A good relationship aim is to build brand loyalty with a customer thanks to living up the expectations.30
The last internal aspect is a self-image which stands on visualization of customers as ideal selves. It is a way that says how a customer imagines him or herself when he or she uses a particular product, so a person feels like a part of the brand.
The self-image feature enables us to better understand and serve to brand customers more effectively due to its aspirational attitude. This aspect is crucial in comparison to other features of the brand identity prism because it shapes a brand personality as a whole.24 For example, a customer who uses Apple products is seen as special, exclusive, young, and free-thinking.
27De Chernatony, L., Brand Management Through Narrowing the Gap Between Brand Identity and Brand Reputation, [online]. Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 15, [pub. 01.02.2010], [cit. 06.01.2021], p. 157-179. Available at:
https://www.academia.edu/4948291/Brand_management_through_narrowing_the_gap_between_brand_identity_and_bra nd_reputation
28WHEELER, A., Desing Brand Identity: an essential guide for the whole branding team, [online]. John Wiley & Sons Inc., NJ, Copyright, 2009, 3th ed, [cit. 06.01.2021], p16. ISBN 978-0-470-40142-2. Available at:
https://desguide.com/wp-content/uploads/Designing-Brand-Identity.pdf
29Evanschitzky, H., Gopalkrishnan, R. I., E-Services - Opportunities and Threats, [online]. Journal of Value Chain Management, vol. 1, Gabler Editio n Wissenschaft, 2007, [cit. 06.01.2021], p. 86. ISBN 978-3-8350-0801-4. Available at: https://books.google.cz/books?id=kCfsZrS98egC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs
30Pucci, T., Simoni, C. & Zanni, L. J Manag Gov, Measuring the relationship between marketing assets, intellectual capital and firm performance, [online]. Journal of Management and Gorenance 19, 2015, [cit. 06.01.2021]. Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271630556_Measuring_the_relationship_between_marketing_assets_intellectu al_capital_and_firm_performance
On the opposite side in external aspects is a reflection that describes who a brand wants its customers to be. It reflects a typical customer of a particular brand and says how the others see the customer who uses the brand.In other words, it explains how the brand’s customers are identified by everyone else.24 Showing a stereotypical customer of the brand can be considered as a source of its identification. Nevertheless, it does not refer to an impression of the brand’s target audience. There is no necessity to create an identical reflection of the whole target group in brand image, but it should fairly present a minor extract from the group that expresses the most important core values. It is mostly used for promotional purposes and is emphasized in commercials and other ads.31 (See Brand identity prism in Picture 3 below.)
Source: Kapferer, J.N., The New Strategic Brand Management - Advanced Insights & Strategic Thinking, [online]. 2012, 5th edition, [cit. 10.11.2020]. ISBN 978-0-7494-6515-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=JnK8pRjSGZUC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs&source=gbs_ge_s ummary_r&cad=0#v=onepage&q&f=false
All these six facets of the Brand identity prism maintain the long-term attractiveness of a brand, its transparency, and the interest of customers. These brand features are essential for clarity of uniqueness for everyone who works on the brand,
31Azoulay, A., Kapferer, J.N., Do brand personality scales really measure brand personality?, [online]. Journal of Brand Management 11, 143-155, 2003, [cit.07.01.2021]. Available at: https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.bm.2540162
Picture 3: Brand Identity Prism
and for inspiration. Moreover, they help to make the right decision by pointing out steps that do not go along with the brand. When the brand identity is ingeniously built, it eases its recognition which is supported by a brief list of characteristics that are diverse in each facet and has a deep meaning that gives the brand power. In short, the prism shows an interconnection of all these mentioned aspects.24
Setting side by side models mentioned above, Aaker’s brand identity perspectives are for the determination of brand identity and its following comparison with an image not very suitable. Information about perspectives could miss some key aspects crucial for the coming comparison. On the other hand, Kapferer’s model draws brand identity albeit briefly however as a whole. A prism diagram presents brand identity in a well-arranged visualization not only of core characteristics but also its relations among them. The prism includes all key facets building a specific brand which is for this thesis desired. It will serve as a foundation that builds a necessary part for answering one of the research questions.
1.3 Brand positioning
A further aspect that plays an important role is brand positioning. According to Keller who believes that positioning is the heart of marketing strategy, it is defined as: “the act of designing the company's offer and image so that it occupies a distinct and valued place in the target customers' minds.”32 Similarly, American Marketing Association describes it as: ,,the marketing strategy involving the attempt to make a brand/service occupy a desirable and distinct position, relative to competing brands/services, in the mind of the target customer.’’33 Shortly, both definitions express how the brand is positioned in the mind of customers.
There are many positioning strategies, however, it is crucial to set key aspects that are based on choosing a suitable target group who uses the product, determination of top competitors, differentiation from competitors by showing the uniqueness of a product or service, and active communication.20
32Keller, K.L., Apéria, T., Georgson, M., Strategic Brand Management: A European Perspective, [online]. Pearson Education Limited, Prentice Hall, 2008, [cit. 06.01.2021], p. 95. ISBN 978-0-273-70632-8. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=yBdKQn5LdJkC&printsec=frontcover
33Brand/Service Positioning, American Marketing Association, [online]. Copyright © 2021 American Marketing Association, [cit. 06.01.2021]. Available at: https://www.ama.org/listings/2019/11/01/brand-service-
positioning/#:~:text=Positioning%20refers%20to%20the%20marketing,mind%20of%20the%20target%20customer.
Creating values of a brand is highly affected by positioning strategies that enable to form customers’ perceptions. A successful positioning results from special and concrete characteristics that develop a picture of the brand in minds of customers. By focusing on specific market segments, a brand occupies certain competitive positioning in a market.34 It demonstrates the power of a brand which enhances its status over competitors. When a customer compares and selects a brand from others that are in the same product or service category, there arises a process of considerations in a specific area connected to the brand and a trigger that helps customers decide. It is the brand and its positioning that facilitate a consumer’s journey in choosing the best product for themselves. Due to positioning, people can identify core values and characteristics that create a perceived advantage, and this makes the brand stronger in a competitive market. In comparison to brand identity, brand positioning is less stable and allows changes during the time to stay modern and attractive.20
A positioning strategy is key for a plan formulation, marketing, and sales. A strong point of positioning is based on possible changes in a style of customers, technological and digital modifications, marketing phases and it can take an advantage of new opportunities for satisfaction of waiting needs in the market. Positioning considers marketing mix as a fundamental part of a strategy that consists of four P – product, price, place, and promotion. It helps by analyzing strengths and weaknesses to determine the position of the brand in the mind of consumers.35
According to Aaker, brand positioning is an important piece of a value proposition that involves functional, emotional, and self-expressive benefits. A good point of positioning is in the possibility to change it without having an impact on the value proposition or identity of a brand itself.20
As an example, it can be demonstrated on the Nike brand which is mentioned as an example in a Brand identity prism as well. Nike has its product portfolio focused on performance and innovation. Their brand is strongly targeting athletes and they do not only offer shoes but also clothing that enhances their performance. Based on their tagline “Just Do It”, it carries a message of empowerment and high concentration
34Blankson, Ch., Kalafatis, S. P., Congruence between Positioning and Brand Advertising, [online]. 2007, Journal of Advertising Research 47 (1), p.79–94., [cit.06.1.2021]. Available at:
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=24789925&lang=cs&site=ehost-live&scope=site
35WHEELER, A., Desing Brand Identity: an essential guide for the whole branding team, [online]. John Wiley & Sons Inc., NJ, Copyright, 2009, 3th ed, [cit. 06.01.2021]. ISBN 978-0-470-40142-2. Available at: https://desguide.com/wp- content/uploads/Designing-Brand-Identity.pdf
when they are doing physical activities. The brand Nike tends to be comfortable for them and high effective by allowing them to focus only on the activity. Nike emphasizes its position by teaming up with world-known events such as the FIFA world cup and persons, called ambassadors, like Cristiano Ronaldo.36
As a tool that easers showing the right position of the brand on the market, it is used perceptual brand mapping. It takes into account two brand attributes in different dimensions that are perceived by customers as critical. The attributes are demonstrated graphically on two axes which mostly display the price and quality of a product that is perceived by current and potential customers. This map highlights the benefits and core features that each brand on the market has.37 (See Picture 4 below.)
Picture 4: Perceptual mapping of brand Nike
Source: Nayan, A., Nike perceptual positioning map, [online]. SlideShare, [pub. 30.08.2018], [cit. 08.01.2021]. Available at: https://www.slideshare.net/arushinayan/nike-perceptual- positioning-map
36Chang, Ch. Y., Visualizing brand personality and personal branding: case analysis on Starbucks and Nike's brand value co-creation on Instagram, [online]. MA (Master of Arts) thesis, University of Iowa, 2014, [cit. 07.01.2021]. Available at:
https://doi.org/10.17077/etd.8y3v071r
37 Gigauri, I., Perceptual Mapping as a Marketing Research Tool for Brand Positioning, [online]. Caucasus University, Caucasus School of Business, Tbilisi, Georgia, 2019, [cit. 07.01.2021]. Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334089201_Perceptual_Mapping_as_a_Marketing_Research_Tool_for_Brand_
Positioning
Considering assessment of brand positioning according to mentioned methods above, Aaker’s attitude based on value proposition provides information that is rather for deeper analysis. Nevertheless, for this thesis is rather eligible to specify basics for brand positioning which depend on a definition of target audience and following compilation of marketing mix of 4Ps. This provides fundamental information about a brand which eases analysis of strengths and weaknesses. These aspects are essential for the determination of top competitors that can be accompanied by a perceptual map that can detect new opportunities.
1.4 Brand image
In comparison to brand identity, a brand image is according to Kotler: “the set of beliefs, ideas, and impression that a person holds regarding an object’’.38 Further definition of brand image is from Keller who interprets it as: “perceptions about a brand as reflected by the brand associations held in consumer memory."39 Despite the usage of terminology is similar, a brand image concept is applied differently.
In marketing communication, Kapferer closely describes that brand image is on a side of a receiver who can see a brand differently over time which means that a brand image can change over time in minds of customers.40 In other words, brand identity is reported as how a brand is perceived by customers on the market. They define the core values of a brand from an outside perspective of a company that the customers have experienced, or which are according to them highly relevant.39 In addition to relationships, communication strongly affects a brand image. When the brand communicates its identity rightly, then the image is perceived in the same way as identical. A goal of marketers is to reduce the difference between brand identity and image.40 An attitude of customers to a brand is based on many features such as quality, communication, the behavior of staff, value proposition, and others which are sorted according to customers’ preferences.
38Kotler, P., A Framework for Marketing Management. Upper Saddle River, Nj, Prentice Hall, 2001, [cit.08.01.2020], p. 273. ISBN 0-13-018525-6.
39Keller, K. L., Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity, [online]. Journal of Marketing 57, no. 1 (1993), [cit. 08.01.2021]. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1252054?seq=3#metadata_info_tab_contents
40Kapferer, J.N., The New Strategic Brand Management - Advanced Insights & Strategic Thinking, [online]. 2012, 5th edition, [cit. 10.11.2020]. ISBN 978-0-7494-6515-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=JnK8pRjSGZUC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v
=onepage&q&f=false
Correctly chosen emotions can significantly improve the perception of brand image and build a long-lasting relationship with a customer. Moreover, a good brand image can be a trigger of impulsive purchases.41
Keller has developed his definition by further aspects. According to him, two brand associations create a brand image.2 The first are brand attributes that demonstrate features that identify a product or service by its concrete characters.39 The attributes can be either product-related or not related to a product. Features that are related to a product have a physical structure. The attributes that are not directly related to a product are outside factors of a product such as its usage, experience and emotions, price, and personality.32 The second are brand benefits that involve individual values and a purport that links customers to the brand. Benefits express the value as something that customers think the product can give them. There are three types of benefits functional, experiential, and symbolic.39 The functional aspect focuses on the inner advantages of a product.32 As an opposite aspect is a symbolic benefit that involves external product advantages.39 The experiential benefit includes experiences that a customer has when he or she consumes or uses a product.24 All these benefits and attributes always depend on other dispositions which can be for instance emotional or affective character and so on.2
Overall, all methods previously mentioned provide essential information for the determination of a brand image. However, each method uses a slightly different way of getting results. Not all associations introduced above are crucial to be founded out because each brand uses and stands out by different aspects. The most appropriate for this thesis is the general technique of definition through core associations from the receiver’s perspective on the brand. It is completed by setting a level of perceived quality and price, followed by a description of identification features such as logo, experience, and so on. This technique will be used to get an answer for the research question that concerns a brand image.
41Vysekalová, J., Mikeš, J., Iage a firemní identita, [online]. Grada Publishing a.s., Praha, 2009, [cit. 08.01.2021].
ISBN 978-80-247-2790-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=N0fi6wvsEvMC&printsec=frontcover&hl=cs&source=gbs_ge_summary_r&cad=0#v=
onepage&q&f=false
1.5 Brand equity
A brand is a core for business, so all marketers strive to find out the fact that makes a brand strong and the way of creating and building up a strong brand. Three basic questions are referring to understanding a way of building, measuring, and managing brand equity.2
As one of the well-known marketing concepts is brand equity that raises the significance of the brand in a marketing strategy and creates a center of attention for directorial interest and research.3 Brand equity contains unique characteristics that are adapted to a brand, so it demonstrates diverse results when a product or service is branded than if it is not. This attitude is based on branding and its importance that branding causes a huge difference. A fundamental concept of brand equity and branding highlights the divergence of results that flow from an added value of previously conducted marketing activities that have been building the brand.2 Generally, brand equity explains the importance of the brand in marketing strategies.3
Brand equity can be seen from different perspectives which are customer based, company based, and financial based. Customer based perspective is formulated on customer’s opinions and their attractiveness to abstract parts of a product.42 A brand is a part of a product, however, it develops through commercials, customers’ experience, and other marketing steps that enforce its associations related to the product within time.40 The second perspective is the company based that explains the position and attitudes of a company to a brand.42 A powerful and well-developed brand is a dream asset for a company because it can be used for a wide scale of objectives such as enhancing the effectiveness of advertising and promotion, conducting a safer distribution, protecting a product from other brands on the market, easier extension and growth into other product categories, etc. In other words, brand equity accumulates an additional value for a company due to the existence of a brand name.19 The last perspective is financial based which takes into account a brand as an asset that can be bought and sold. A price is set on a brands’ current value in the financial market that is paid if it is sold. Nevertheless, calculating the corresponding price is very difficult because it includes expectations and estimations in terms of initial costs and other aspects.42
42Keller, K. L., Lehmann, D.R., Brands and Branding: Research Findings and Future Priorities, [online]. Marketing Science, 2006, pp.740-759, JSTOR, [cit. 10.11.2020]. Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/40057218?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents
1.5.1. Aaker’s Five Assets Model
According to Aaker, brand equity is: “a set of assets (and liabilities) linked to a brand’s name and symbol that adds to (or subtracts from) the value provided by a product or service to a firm and/or that firm’s customers.’’19 It consists of five asset categories: brand name awareness, brand loyalty, perceived quality, brand associations, and other brand assets (channel relationships, patents).19
Brand awareness demonstrates the existence of a brand in the customer’s mind which is measured in ways of remembering a brand ranked from recognition to recall.19 An initial possibility of brand recognition means that customers can identify a specific brand by its elements and features and associate it with a specific product category.
It is found out that consumers rather choose a brand that they know instead of an unknown brand. A recall refers to the ability to remember a brand when customers think about a specific product category. This category involves three types of recalls: top of mind brand, with aid, and without aid. Top of mind brand is defined as a first brand that a customer links with a specific product category. A further crucial aspect of brand awareness is the dominance of brand name which means that customers can recall only one brand name in a product category.43 However, nowadays customers are overloaded by marketing news, so it is quite a dare to beat the others. Some brands have a huge advantage, especially in terms of a great number of sales and duration of operating on the market for more than a few years.44 Another aspect that builds a high level of awareness is the inclusion of a wide range of media channels such as events, sponsorships sampling, and so on.19 Other measures that describe a level of brand awareness are association anchors and a signal of substance which means that due to reviews of satisfied customers a brand becomes stronger.45
A further asset is a perceived quality that is a driver of financial output.19 It plays a key role in referring to the strategic trust of a business, so many companies consider quality as a primary value and embrace it into their mission.3 Quality is also the main component that supports other features of brand perception. Perceptions about features that
43Aaker, A. D., Managing Brand Equity – Capitalizing on th Value of a Brand Name, [online]. The Free Press, New York, 1991, [cit. 25.10.2020]. eISBN-13: 978-1-4391-8838-5. Available at:
https://books.google.cz/books?id=r_TSY5sxnO8C&printsec=frontcover
44Lodish, L. M., Mela, C. F., If Brands Are Built over Years, Why Are They Managed over Quarters?, [online]. Harvard Business Review, Strategic Planning, Magazine July-August 2007, [cit. 25.10.2021]. Available at:
https://hbr.org/2007/07/if-brands-are-built-over-years-why-are-they-managed-over-quarters
45 Tutorialspoint, Brand Management - Equity Models, [online]. © Copyright 2020, Tutorialspoint, [Cit. 25.10.2020].
Available at: https://www.tutorialspoint.com/brand_management/brand_management_equity_models.htm
the brand has are mostly associated with perceived quality. According to its excellence, customers usually decide if they buy the product or not.19 Other aspects that describe a level of perceived quality is a brand position that displays the placement of all competing brands on the market. It is usually intended that a higher position means higher quality.
A further factor for perceived quality is the number of brand extensions which gives the impression of a higher product guarantee.45
The third asset category is brand loyalty that is valuable equity of every brand because it creates brand value and supports programs for the improvement of brand equity.3 It is much easier to retain current customers than to gain new ones. In addition, the current customer is less costly to stay loyal to the brand than a new customer who requires higher spending to become a regular buyer. Due to a high-loyalty level companies can easily predict their sales because loyal customers generate steady revenue, which can be also called trade leverage.43 Customers can be divided according to their loyalty level into noncustomer who do not buy a product; price switchers who buy a product according to its price; passively loyal who buy a product automatically without any reason; fence-sitters who buy two or more brands because they cannot decide among them; and committed. The most important for a company are committed customers and fence-sitters whose relationship needs to be strengthened. Loyalty is usually supported by frequent-buyer programs and customer clubs which enable them to build a stronger relationship and show to customers that a company cares about them.19 Further factors that describe a degree of loyalty are a time to respond to competitive threads which means that it takes time till loyal customers switch to other competitive product brands and attracting new customers through existing ones.43
The fourth category are brand associations that involve all elements, attributes, people, and other aspects that are connected with a brand. These associations are directed by the brand identity which is defined by a company.19 It is crucial for building a strong brand identity to focus on more than the functional benefits and attributes of a brand.
The brand identity should also involve emotional and self-expressive aspects, and four brand identity perspectives (brand as product, brand as an organization, brand as a person, brand as a symbol).3 Further factors that depict a level of recognition within a product category is number in extension which means that the more extensions a brand has, the higher chance of adding the next brand associations it has.43
The last category are other assets that give a competitive advantage to brand equity.
Among those assets are assigned patents, trademarks, copyrights, trade secrets,
and other property rights. The brand is more competent when it has a higher number of those proprietary assets.45 The Aaker’s Five Assets Model is captured it Picture 5 below.
Picture 5: Aaker's Five Assets Model
Source: Aaker, D. A., Building Strong Brands, [online]. New York, The Free Press, Copyright © 1996 by David A. Aaker. [Cit. 10.11.2020], p. 176. ISBN 0-02-900151-X. Available at:
https://www.pdfdrive.com/building-strong-brands-e156626240.html
1.5.2. Customer-based brand equity (CBBE) model
A customer is a driver of creating brand value and brand equity by expressing his or her opinions and behavior. They assess the characteristics of a product or brand and based on that they decide on a purchase.2 A process of measuring is formed by brand-knowledge structures developed in the minds of customers which is used as a groundwork of brand equity. There have been designed many models for interpreting
distinctions in brand-knowledge structures of customers such as the well-known model AIDA which means Awareness, Interest, Desire, and Action.42
A strength of the model of customer-level brand equity (CBBE) is based on a brand and customer’s experience in terms of feelings, seeing, hearing, and learning about the brand gradually. Hence, marketers strive to ensure the best experience with a product or service for them and go along with actions that help to establish a strong connection of a brand and desired attributes such as beliefs, thoughts, feelings, etc.2 It is wanted to have a positive CBBE because customers behave more sympathetically to a product or service, so it enables to conduct a brand extension, changes in distribution, increase a price without a great impact on their behavior or other actions.46
CBBE concept consists of five facets that are put into hierarchy or chain ranked from a base level to a top-level. At first, the structure includes awareness on its fundamental level which is placed from brand recognition to brand recall.
The second are associations which contain tangible and intangible features of a product or service. A further level represents attitudes that are ranked from acceptability to attractiveness. The penultimate level bears attachment which is sorted from loyalty of customers to addiction. The last one is an activity that is situated on the top of the hierarchy. This level involves purchases and usage or consumption frequency, advocating the brand through word-of-mouth and other activities.42
Customer-Based Brand Equity Pyramid
A well-known professor Keller created a Customer-Based Brand Equity Pyramid that consists of six brand-building blocks for managing four key steps of creating a powerful brand by its identity, meaning, responses, and relationships. Reaching the top of the pyramid builds strong brand equity, however, that means that all brand-building blocks situated below must be placed correctly to ensure a well-built foundation.47 (See CBBE pyramid in Picture 6 below.)
46Keller, Kevin Lane, Conceptualizing, Measuring, and Managing Customer-Based Brand Equity. [online]. Journal of Marketing, 1993, pp. 1–22, JSTOR [Cit. 10.11.2020], Available at:
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1252054?seq=7#metadata_info_tab_contents
46 Tutorialspoint, Brand Management - Equity Models, [online]. © Copyright 2020, Tutorialspoint, [Cit. 25.10.2020].
47Keller, K. L., Building Customer-Based Brand Equity: A blueprint for Creating Strong Brands, [online. Marketing Science Institute, working paper, report no.01.107, 2001, [cit. 09.01.2021]. Available at:
http://scholar.google.cz/scholar_url?url=http://www.academia.edu/download/40863813/CustomerBasedbrandEquityMod el.pdf&hl=cs&sa=X&ei=w9r6X6i1MZXKmAH_q6joDA&scisig=AAGBfm2Os3r04B6yQiSjc-
J6ahGnk5pTbg&nossl=1&oi=scholarr
