University of Economics, Prague
International Business – Central European Business Realities
Women in Honduras and their career progression in management: case study of construction company
Author: Maria Gabriela Ramos
Thesis Instructor: doc.Ing. Zuzana Křečková Kroupová, M.A., Ph.D.
Scholar year: 2020/2021
Declaration:
I hereby declare that I am the sole author of the thesis entitled “Women in Honduras and their career progression in management: case study of construction company “. I duly marked out all quotations. The used literature and sources are stated in the attached list of references.
In Prague on April 30th,2021 Maria Gabriela Ramos
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my gratitude to my thesis supervisor, doc. Ing. Zuzana Křečková
Kroupová, M.A., Ph.D. for assisting me in selecting the appropriate subject for my thesis, for her assistance and consultation, and, most importantly, for her encouragement and patience during the entire research.
In addition, I'd like to express my gratitude to my grandparents, for their unwavering support and love throughout my life; it is a blessing to have them in my life and to know that they are still there for me.
Thank you for all the important lessons and for always believing in me, Mom and Dad; it is because of you that I am the woman I am today.
Uncles and aunts, thank you for always being there for me and setting such a good example. I'd like to express my gratitude to my siblings, because one of the reasons I take on challenges is to set a good example for them, and I've felt their support despite the distance.
To my friends from back home, thank you for always believing in me and sticking by me even when things got tough.
This research would not have been possible without the organization and the people interviewed; I appreciate the time dedicated.
Last but not least, the main reason I made it through the toughest days is because of my wonderful husband, who was by my side through the most challenging circumstances and with whom I am sharing this adventure in Prague. All of these important people in my life influenced me and encouraged me to pursue my goals.
Title of the master’s Thesis:
Women in Honduras and their career progression in management: Case study of construction company
Abstract:
The aim of this study is to determine what barriers and enablers women face in reaching top management positions in the construction industry in Honduras. The thesis is based on qualitative research in a specific construction company. The findings of the study show that women face many challenges and few enablers on their path to top management. The results came from a variety of perspectives inside the company. Women do not feel secure in a male-dominated industry because they do not receive enough encouragement from superiors or male colleagues. This is where businesses and male colleagues or subordinates may help these women achieve their goals.
Key words:
women, gender segregation, Honduras, construction industry, top managementTable of Contents
INTRODUCTION ... 1
WOMEN IN MANAGEMENT ... 4
1 WOMEN’S CAREER PROGRESSION TO MANAGEMENT ... 4
1.1 BARRIERS ... 7
1.1.1 Corporate values and culture ... 8
1.1.2 Lack of flexible work arrangements ... 9
1.1.3 Wage gap ... 11
1.1.4 Lack of Mentoring and support... 12
1.1.5 Gender segregation... 14
1.1.6 Harassment ... 15
1.2 ENABLERS ... 17
1.2.1 Government ... 17
1.2.2 Comprehensive Ecosystem ... 18
1.2.3 Men and women participation ... 20
2 INFLUENCE OF GENDER ON LEADERSHIP STYLE ... 21
3 WOMEN IN MALE DOMINATED INDUSTRIES ... 26
3.1 WOMEN IN SPORTS ... 27
3.2 WOMEN IN POLITICS ... 29
3.3 WOMEN IN ENGINEERING,SCIENCE,TECHNOLOGY AND MATHEMATICS ... 31
4 WOMEN IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY ... 34
4.1 BARRIERS IN CONSTRUCTION... 34
4.1.1 Image of the Industry ... 35
4.1.2 Culture and environment ... 36
4.1.3 Commitments to one's spouse or family as an obstacle ... 36
4.1.4 Male dominated training courses ... 37
5 SITUATION OF WOMEN IN HONDURAS... 39
5.1 VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN... 39
5.2 WOMEN IN LABOR FORCE AND GENDER WAGE GAP ... 40
5.3 WORK AND LIFE BALANCE ... 41
5.4 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION RIGHTS ... 42
5.5 LEGAL AUTONOMY AND POLITICS ... 43
6 METHODOLOGY ... 45
6.1 RESEARCH SAMPLE ... 46
6.2 LIMITATIONS ... 46
6.3 PROBLEM DEFINITION ... 47
7 STUDY – DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ... 48
7.1 UNDERSTANDING INTERVIEWEES BACKGROUND ... 48
7.2 SUB QUESTIONS DISCUSSION... 51
7.2.1 Do men and women in the Construction Company have equal opportunities? ... 52
7.2.2 Are there any positions at the construction company that are just for men? ... 55
7.2.3 What assumptions and biases have women experienced in the construction industry/Company? ... 57
7.2.4 Do women in the construction Company feel supported by the top management or male colleagues? ... 58
7.2.5 Is the situation in Honduras a barrier for women in the road to top management in the construction industry? ... 60
7.2.6 Has harassment been an impediment or an obstacle in women’s career development in the construction industry? ... 61
7.2.7 Are women’s leadership truly different from men? ... 62
7.3 RESEARCH QUESTION DISCUSSION ... 64
8 COMPARISON OF THE RESEARCH OUTCOMES AND THE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ... 67
CONCLUSION ... 70
REFERENCES ... 72
APPENDIX ... 75
Introduction
Honduras is a country located in central America and it’s known for its beautiful beaches, spectacular flora and fauna, and hardworking people. However, the country has one of the highest levels of economic disparity in Latin America, and it is known for being one of the world's poorest countries and the second poorest country in Central America.
Women represent 51.5% of the total population of the country (53.5% of the urban population and 49.8% of the rural population), of which 1.7 million women are between 16 and 50 years old. Although they have a higher degree of education, Honduran women have less participation in the formal labor market and less than men earn. At the national level, four out of every ten jobs lost as a result of the economic crisis are sources of income for women and in urban areas, more than half of the jobs lost are carried out by women, according to an investigation presented by the Fund for Women. United Nations for the Development of Women (UNIFEM) in Honduras.
In the labor market, Honduran women are severely underrepresented. As a result, the country's economy is losing about 20% of its potential per capita income, which is higher than Latin America and the Caribbean's loss of 15%(Michel,2020).
Women have to overcome many barriers in their lives to earn a better wage, to have a better position and to stand out from men, and it is hard to overcome these difficulties in any situation or in any country, but it makes it harder in a country where Gender inequality prevails.
W.A.G.E (Women's and Girls Empowerment) is a global program led by the American association, which works in target countries to provide women with assistance in whatever way they need,against gender inequality and abuse According to their research in Honduras, due to the government corruption, bureaucracy, informality, restricted access to finance, political conflict, associated with violence, gang warfare, migration, and natural disasters, the business climate in Honduras is dynamic and daunting for women and men alike. Women’s experiences are frequently gendered as a result of pervasive social inequality and violence against women (VAW), resulting in an unequal playing field for existing and potential women entrepreneur (Rudnicka, n.d.).
Men in Honduras earn slightly more money than women and have a higher labor participation rate (86 percent for men vs 52 percent for women. Women have more probability than men to have informal employment (77 percent vs. 71percent), and only 40% of females over 15 have bank accounts, compared to 50% of men (Rudnicka, n.d.).
Women nowadays are perceived as the “weak” gender, a topic that was controversial years ago, is now a topic worthy to defend specially in an industry like construction which is dominated by men and although women might seem” fragile” or “delicate” they are capable of being more than housewives or the “ideal” mother, they can overcome any obstacle on their way and change the whole world`s perspective on their abilities and strengths and be the strong leaders any company needs.
The authors motivation for writing the Diploma thesis in “Women in Honduras and their career progression in management: Case study of construction company“ transpire after experiencing herself a situation where gender inequality prevailed, where a man was chosen for a better position than a woman, because “construction industry” is “fitter for men” and women are not strong enough to deal with the weight of being in a male dominated industry, and that is the wrong path to take, since women are able to perform equally or better than men in an industry as though as construction.
The aim of the thesis is to investigate and discover what are the enablers and the barriers that a woman goes through in order to reach a managerial position, specifically in the construction industry in a construction company Located in Honduras, partial goal is to understand and analyze if women leadership style is truly different from men’s specifically in the construction company.
For the purpose of the diploma thesis, the following research question and sub questions will be answered:
• What are the enablers and barriers of women in their career path in the construction industry?
• Do men and women in the Construction Company have equal opportunities?
• Are there any positions at the construction company that are just for men?
• What assumptions and biases have women experienced in the construction industry?
• Do women in the construction company feel supported by the top management or male colleagues?
• Is the Situation in Honduras a barrier for women in the road to top management in the construction industry?
• Has harassment been an impediment or an obstacle in women’s career development in construction industry?
• Are women's leadership styles truly different from men?
Men and women do not vary substantially in perceived effective leadership when all leadership contexts are considered, according to the findings of a recent report (Paustian- Underdahl, Walker & Woehr, 2014).
The author will be able to not only achieve the aim of the diploma thesis and answer to sub questions with the aid of in-depth interviews with key people in the business, but also understand what the real situation of women in the construction industry in Honduras is, as well as discover what other barriers and enablers exist.
Women in Management
In the theoretical part of the Diploma thesis the author will focus on important aspects that will help understand the research with an open mind and appreciate the importance of the topic, each chapter will summarize the findings from books and online sources.
Starting with the basics on management, the road women’s take to managerial position including enablers and barriers they have to overcome, after understanding all this concepts, the author, wants to highlight the influence of gender in leadership style.
The last two chapters focus on the basics of the research which are, women in a male dominated industry and the situation of women in Honduras.
1 Women’s career progression to management
Women have been struggling to get to the top for years, the author in this chapter wants to focus on basic management terms. Agreeing to (Robbins & Coulter, 2016), administration includes planning and managing the work exercises of others, so their exercises are completed productively and successfully. The definition is clear, that management is the essential piece in a company’s success, that is why a manager is an important asset to reach a company’s goal, but management is not just overseeing other activities, there are four main management functions: planning, organizing, leading and controlling (Robbins &
Coulter, 2016).
The primary reason why supervisors are imperative is since organizations require their administrative abilities and capacities more than ever in dubious, complex and chaotic times, supervisors play an imperative part in distinguishing basic issues and making reactions. Another reason why directors are vital to organization is since they`re basic to getting things done. (Robbins & Coulter, 2016). Managers are the backbone of organizations their decisions are important, and any tiny mistake could bring a company down, but not anyone can be a manager, managers need three critical skills according to Robert L. Katz (1955) technical, human and conceptual. Specialized ability is the work particular information and procedures required to capably perform work assignments, human aptitudes is the capacity to work well with other individuals exclusively and in gather and conceptual abilities is the capacity to think and to conceptualize almost theoretical and complex situations (Robbins & Coulter, 2016). Women have traditionally
been seen as possessing the necessary skills for collaborating, caring, adjusting, and convincing. Yet only three women were listed among the CEOs of the world’s 500 largest corporations in 2000 (Northouse, 2001).
Fortune magazine acknowledges that few women reach the ranks of upper management and, those who do, “don’t wear their power quite as comfortably as men do” (Sellers, 2002, p. 102) Women not only struggle to get to the top, but it is also a challenge to stay at a higher level, with the competitive world, especially when men are dominating the business.
While effective management necessitates caring and facilitation, achieving management roles still necessitates straightforwardness, transparency, and office time. The road to higher management in the business world is well-defined for both men and women.
Usually long hours, demonstrating ambition and loyalty to the organization are prerequisites to promotion. With no familial duties to meddled, both men and ladies can compete on an indeed plane. This becomes difficult when marital and family situations change (Winn, 2004). Women may be gaining visibility as a select few attain upper management positions, but the corporate ladder is still populated by middle-aged men hanging onto the rungs. Fewer women than men seek MBA degrees. Fewer women in the pipeline translates to fewer women ascending to the top (Winn, 2004).
Baxter and Wright (2000), while acknowledging that women face greater obstacles than men as they move up the corporate hierarchy, question “systematic glass ceiling effects”
Nonetheless, women are scarce at all but the lowest ranks in most companies. (Winn, 2004) blame women themselves, not for their lack of abilities or drive, but for their lack of assertiveness in making their wishes known. Too often women wait to be recognized rather than ask for promotions, pay raises, or even acknowledgment of their contributions.
Women do not feel confident when it comes to have a managerial position, not because they do not think they are uncapable but mostly because the road to management is not an easy path, and women are easily being replace by a male figure just because, they are considered more stable.
(Tarr-Whelan, 2009) makes a solid case for expanding the numbers of women in senior official and key decision-making parts in organizations. The key point is utilizing the
abilities of half the populace that already have been overlooked. She proposes that having 30 percent of these administration positions filled by qualified ladies speaks to a “tipping point” that puts the impact on commerce issues and off sex. (Erkut,2008) recommend that having three or more women on a corporate board of executives serves as a comparative basic mass or tipping point.
What do ladies bring to the table? A question that (Tarr-Whelan, 2009) reacted and recognizes five benefits organizations get from having more ladies in senior employments:
1. Higher benefits, more chance mindfulness, less hypercompetitive and a more prominent capacity to outlive money related downturns.
2. Policies that contribute to person and societal wellbeing – education, families, enterprise.
3. A more grounded integration of work and family driving to higher efficiency and quality of life.
4. Increased commitment to both individual and corporate obligation and broader and more long-term arranging.
5. Management that reflects the twenty-first century –teamwork, participative choice making.
Women have mostly advanced to positions in lower management but are still disadvantaged at top management level. Women also receive less than men in all countries, even employed in the same professions. More men in house building, engineering, manufacturing and construction and more women in human resources, sales and marketing are becoming increasingly gender segregated (Davidson, 2011).
The road is not easy for women indeed, in the following sub-chapter the author is summarizing findings on the obstacle’s women have to overcome to get to the top management, barriers established by society and companies.
Women have made substantial inroads into senior management positions in large corporations in recent decades. Women now hold more than one-third of all management positions in private industry in the United stated (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2005), and
Fortune magazine declared 2006 as the “Year of the Most Powerful Woman CEO,” citing PepsiCo, Xerox, eBay, ADM, Kraft Foods, Sara Lee, and Avon as examples of major companies headed (Cook & Glass, 2011).
1.1 Barriers
Barriers begun a long time prior, concurring to (Johns, 2013) "the glass ceiling", an express first presented within the 1980s, may be a representation for the undetectable barriers that block women and minorities from progressing up the corporate step to administration and top positions.
In the finding report published by the Glass Ceiling Commission in 1995, the unbreachable borders between women and the executive posts have been reaffirmed. The committee then noticed that about 3 percent to 5 percent of senior management positions were held by women in Fortune 500 companies. The committee also found that women in senior positions received less pay than their male counterparts. Furthermore, the Commission's findings revealed that women in senior roles held various positions in certain areas that are not part of the normal pipeline or career route for executive positions, including human resources or science (Johns, 2013).
Although women’s status in society has improved substantially in the past century, their subordination to men portrayed in their lack of access to positions of power continues to be a major barrier for professional women (Barsh, Cranson, & Craske, 2008).
Barriers for women in the past decades were harder, years ago women were not able to even vote or work, women were the housewives and the mothers and that is what people believed, barriers started when society started believing that women were not capable of anything that required a little bit of sacrifice and effort, that women where whole by having a man by their sides when in fact women have been whole since the moment, they enter this world.
What is truly holding women back to the road of victory? in 1995 the Glass Ceiling Commission report recognized four categories of obstruction that were avoiding women from accomplishing upward mobility: societal, administrative, internal commerce and business structural boundaries (Johns, 2013).
1.1.1 Corporate values and culture
Recruitment and outreach boundaries are noteworthy boundaries for women and minorities in coming to senior levels of administration. Most companies promote from inside.
Businesses that do not effectively attract and have more women in their positions would have a limited number from which to choose for promotion into upper management positions. Furthermore, after ladies have overcome the recruitment line, their so-called corporate environment boundaries such as different types of gender contact, attitudes and methods of socialization are always irritated. In addition, plenty of occupational roadblocks obstruct women's advancement to the top. Among these are a need of mentoring, starting situation in dead-end occupations, distinctive guidelines for performance assessment for women and men, and small or no access to casual systems of communication (Johns, 2013).
Another societal challenge is women's insufficient human resources. The talents, expertise and knowledge of an employee are called human resources (Canadian Oxford Dictionary, 2005).
Women are often motivated to serve in departments with less resources for promotion or that do not lead to management positions (Guerrero, 2011, p. 382).
Women in management are more likely to come from non-business contexts, according to Broughton and Miller, since they have hardly any experience operating a company (Broughton & Miller, 2009, p. 14).
Further, the idea of the “glass border” proposes that women don't development due to their constrained worldwide business involvement which is frequently the result of companies ordinarily advertising openings to travel to male representatives to begin with (Broughton
& Mill operator, 2009, p. 11).
Organizational structures can meddle with and hinder female progression. These structures incorporate male overwhelmed “old boys’ networks,” expanded uncertainty about progression, and glass cliffs (Broughton & Mill operator, 2009, p. 17). Another corporate issue is that advancement to senior positions requires more than prevalent aptitudes and involvement. It may be affected by hazy rules and parameters such as agreeable
connections with powerful individuals or other implicit expectations. Furthermore, the methods for participating in opportunities for career development in companies, such as preparation or travel, are often obscured. When the delegate is a woman, the level of confusion rises (Hamel, 2009, p. 239).
Such corporate obstacles only put pressure on women, leading to the Queen Bee Syndrome, in which a woman is forced to choose between having to align herself with her network of associates and feeling compelled to do so by dividing herself from her female lower-ranking female colleagues. Women no longer have to choose between becoming a woman and becoming a good executive because there are more women in the top levels of a company (Knight, 2011, p. 9). Some experts think that a lack of variety within an organization explains the lack of female representation (Cook & Glass, 2014)
1.1.2 Lack of flexible work arrangements
The lack of flexible work arrangements is another reason woman are being held back, even though women are capable of Many things, most women want to be a mother, and having kids become a priority once women reach certain age. In the United States average length of leave for new parents is 12 weeks, in Honduras women receive only 42 days before and 42 days after the baby is born.
A survey in 2015 states that the increasing workload and increasing time constraint is one major reason for plenty of women to avoid aiming for leadership positions, due to the fact that combining family with the job plays an essential role within their lives (Lott &
Klenner 2018). Women are also faced with tensions between their traditional roles of wife and mother and their career. This is known as ‘role-conflict’. It is a situation where a woman is torn between her 'career and her family' (Tinsley 1984, Greyvenstein 2000, Petersen Gravett 2000, Heward 1996).
According to (Haile et al, 2016), a major cause of the shortage of women in senior leadership positions is the stress of juggling work and family obligations. According to (Linehan and Walsh, 2000), the issue is not so much women's family links as it is that these ties are seen as impediments to women's willingness to work, which is critical for promotion. Often women feel that if they want to be effective in the workplace, they will have to sacrifice their personal lives (Phipps & Prieto, 2014).
Caregiving requires a woman's entire life and career, and there is little support available to help her in this position. As a result, women are often required to take time away from their careers to perform the role of caretaker. For “off-ramping” and quitting their jobs, women continue to pay a high price (Johns, 2013)
Even among executives, an increasing number of women are “stopping out” to raise families as the demands of corporate life impinge on the quality and quantity of family time. Hewlett’s recent (2002) study indicated that women in companies that offered flexible hours or work-at-home options were more likely to stay after the birth of a child.
Even with the opportunity for flexible work arrangements, women in her study were more likely to be childless (42 %) or have stay-at- home husbands (30 %) (Winn, 2004)
The issue, according to Linda Stroh, an industrial relations professor at Loyola University in Chicago, is "the lingering and sometimes unconscious assumption (by others) that women are going to leave to have kids" (Fisher, 1992, p. 45). Sylvia Hewlett (2002) believes that women who choose to pursue corporate careers often realize too late that their childbearing opportunities have passed. Family and work are indeed a "war, guilty as its nuclear weapon and mutually assured destruction as its target," according to Ellen Gilchrist, author and poet (2002, p. 256). Lately, personal and family responsibilities have risen to the top of the list of reasons women give for not rising to top management (Morris, 2002).
Although many women become effective business owners, it is impossible to stress the difficulty of balancing their families alongside their business obligations.
There are certain gender issues that prevent women from reaching top positions such as maternity, raising children, taking care of spouse, and balancing with family to name a few. Although most men talk of women empowerment it remains in the letter only, not in
the spirit. It is still unclear whether men feel insecure if women reach top positions (Rao, 2018). A possible origin of discrimination and stereotyping of women in top management can be rooted back to the past, where females were not represented in such roles. This in turn can be related to the reason of unavailability of same-sex mentoring for females. In summary, impeding factors of women in management are motherhood, which results in
“career interruption” along with a “lack of a role model or mentor and a conscious continuous decision to avoid the stress of balancing work and life,” (Hurley and Choudhary, 2016, p. 251).
1.1.3 Wage gap
Another boundary women experience is the wage gap, The Joint Financial Committee of the US Congress cited possibly unfair wage practices as one figure contributing to the sex wage gap. In 2006, American College of Healthcare Executives detailed 30 percent of women who claimed that because of their gender identity, they did not receive a fair reward. The figure was lower than in 2000, when 42% of women thought they had no pay equal to men (Johns, 2013).
The wage differential between professional women is the highest in the educational sector, suggesting 60 cents for every dollar receivable by professional men. For professionals women in dollars equals 67,245 dollars, and for professional men 1116,136 dollars (Johns,2013). Wage Gap is a sensitive topic, it is not only that men get paid more than women because they “know more” but since men are believed to be the “head of the house” they deserve a higher wage than women.
While career opportunities for women have changed, family role models typically have not. While there has been a rise in the number of homemade fathers, they remain in the minority. Most young men and women still see their mother doing the majority of home chores. The father’s job is still seen as more important in terms of both money and prestige (Winn, 2004)
1.1.4 Lack of Mentoring and support
Women have cited lack of coaching, lack of leadership experience, exclusion from social relationships, and male stereotyping as major obstacles to advancement over the past two decades (Winn, 2004).
Men and women have different levels of confidence and career motivation, which has been cited as a factor in women's inability to advance to senior and executive roles. Women managers are limited in their careers by lower goals and aspirations, according to (Johns, 2013). Women also lack self-confidence and self-belief, which causes them to take less risks and make more deliberate career decisions.
Women, according to research, take mistakes to heart and take a little longer to recover from them. They are harsh on themselves and strive to be perfectionists (Rao, 2018).
Lack of access to networks and sponsors for women, for aspiring leaders, informal networks are a valuable resource, but disparities in men's and women's organizational positions and job opportunities, as well as their tendency to connect with people of the same gender, result in women's networks becoming weaker. They cite a lack of access to influential peers as a significant impediment to advancement. Furthermore, the links that women do have are less effective: men's networks have more assistance than women's networks, and men are more likely to have mentors that help them advance in their careers.
Men in positions of authority, on the other hand, prefer to steer developmental opportunities toward junior men, whom they believe are more likely to succeed than women (Ibarra, 2020).
Johns (2013) accepts that women frequently need a support who advances and offers their abilities and capacities to others within the organization and goes to bat in making a difference them climb the organizational stepping stool.
A study launched with the help of important companies like American Express, Deloitte, Intel and Morgan Stanley in 2009 revealed that women are below or are short on developing the role that sponsorship plays in carrier portability. Whereas (Ibarra, 2020) concurs that aspiring leaders require role models whose styles and behaviors they can explore with and assess according to their possess guidelines and others’ responses. Less female leaders mean less role models and can recommend to young would-be leaders that
being a woman could be a liability—thus disheartening them from seeing senior ladies as credible sources of counsel and support.
Gender roles and contact differences between men and women are also a source of consternation for women. Women may be penalized for showing either too little or too much assertiveness, ambition, and independence as a result of gender typecasts. Women, for example, communicate in a more warm, less focused, and mitigated manner than men.
This type of contact has the potential to stifle women's abilities. However, if a woman is too assertive, which goes against the stereotype, her authority and likability can be harmed.
Women are often treated differently than men when it comes to their skills. “Women's skills are judged more negatively than men's, with women being held to a higher degree of integrity and female managers and leaders being evaluated more critically than their male counterparts” (Johns, 2013).
At a time when women made up a small percentage of the workforce, many established corporate structures and work procedures were shaped to suit men's lives and circumstances. Most societies connect masculinity to leadership: the ideal leader is aggressive, confident, and self-reliant like the ideal person. Women should be nice, loving, and unselfish, on the other hand (Ibarra, 2020).
The findings of the McKinsey study Women Matter 2012: Making the Breakthrough (Devillard, 2012) suggest that businesses are taking gender equality seriously and devoting resources to addressing it. Companies have adopted activities such as instituting training programs for valuing gender equity, modifying recruiting patterns to reduce sexism, and setting concrete targets for putting women in senior roles, as cited by the Glass Ceiling Commission and others (Johns, 2013).
Women's underrepresentation of leadership positions raises a number of issues. Barriers to women's advancement not only jeopardize basic ideals of equal opportunity and social justice, but they also impose organizational costs. Organizations without an equal opportunity culture have a harder time attracting, retaining, and motivating the most talented employees. Obstacles to women's success often lower employee productivity,
dedication, and retention, as well as increase costs of hiring, training, and mentoring replacement employees (Rhode, 2017).
Incorporating leadership into one's sense of identity is especially difficult for women, who must build legitimacy in a society that is divided over if, when, and how they should exert power. Women aren't fitted out to be leaders, according to practices that associate leadership with activities that are more prevalent in men. Although there is a failure to discriminate, subtle, "second generation" forms of gender preference can hinder a company's leadership identity growth (Ibarra, 2020). Despite the fact that women are widely considered to have made significant strides toward equality in reaching senior positions, the fact remains that women do not have fair representation in these roles.
Executive women are unusual. Complex, widespread and constant obstacles restrict the advancement of millions of women who want to become powerful (Schwanke, 2013).
1.1.5 Gender segregation
Society and culture establish traditional patterns of gender roles, these are marked by inequality and act as parameters for women. From an early age, it is stipulated there are jobs for women and jobs for men, and this becomes a barrier for women who want a high- level position, in view of the fact that some people still believe top management positions are only for the male gender.
In assigning women to low-paying and low-state positions, gender stereotypes have an influence. Women are considered to be more manageable, tolerant and caring than men, and men have rationality and leadership qualities (Williams, 1995). Every community nevertheless meets the gender stereotype of the job: employees classify workers according to their gender, race and sexual prejudice into various occupations, to some degree they identify themselves by the stereotype they use in the workplace (Ridgeway, 2009).
Gender discrimination implies that, to some degree, women and men serve in various professions or industries or on separate terms and conditions. Women typically serve in different occupations than men if they are in the workforce. Their working conditions are, on average, lower than men's and frequently "attypical" (i.e., part-time, temporary, or
casual jobs, home and sub-contract work) (Adu-Oppong & Kendie, 2018). In general, not more than a fifth of the salaries of women in the world are produced in part by low-paid employment for women. Also in these jobs, women are typically underpaid compared to men doing similar work.
1.1.6 Harassment
Another barrier in women’s path to a successful carrier is harassment, is not news that women have been fighting with these obstacles in their lives for years now, in fact Research (Hersch, et al, 2015) shows that the word "sexual assault" had not been a frequent term before the 1970s and that gender-based sexual openness and despicable comments about the skills of employees were generally regarded as appropriate conduct. In 1974, however, a U.S. District Court Judge determined that a woman whose work was eliminated solely because she refused to have sex with her supervisor was not covered by employment law but instead confronted with personal repercussions when she rejected sex. Sexual violence continues to be pervaded by the workplace (Krivkovich et al., 2018).
At some point in their career, 35 per cent of women in corporate America have been sexually harassed, surveys that consistently show that a majority of harassers are male and are more likely than their victims to be at or higher levels of organizations. There are few other signs of social status, profession or age patterns that make it difficult to recognize potential harassers (Hersch et al., 2015).
Article "Women at work" (Krivkovich et al., 2018) states that women are frequently the
"single" woman or the only woman at work; these terms are rephrased as "solo" (only in German). "Woman at work" "Only" women have far less experience than women who deal with other women. Micro-aggressions are experienced by approximately 75% of women in general. They are more likely to be disabled, exposed to disgraceful and insensitive comments, and believe like their personal lives at work are not discussed. Most importantly, "only" ladies are almost double that at any stage in their employment they have been sexually assaulted. Abuse at work, including sexual assault, is common worldwide and is linked to negative outcomes and injuries to mental health (Gale et al., 2019).
Although sexually harassed, including men and women, international surveys indicate that the majority of victims are women. The victims are younger, are less educated, work for, and are supervised mostly by people of the other sex and work in masculine-dominated professions in women's cases (Hersch et al., 2015).
Sexual harassment is a step back in women career development, being harassed is not only the situation but it leaves a mark in the victim, it affects workplace behavior, personality and how the person interact with others, Study by (Herschet et al., 2015) explains a variety of negative results in explanations of the consequences of sexual harassment. There is widespread evidence of lower satisfaction at work, poor psychological and physical wellbeing, greater absences, a decreased commitment to organizations and a greater risk of leaving work.
Studies demonstrate a connection between violence and stress in the workplace and reduced mental welfare including sleep disturbance, depression, anxiety, stress and psychological distress (Gunnarsdottir et al., 2006; Nabe-Nielsen et al., 2016). This may also be the case for colleagues who are not directly victims (Di Marco et al., 2016, 2018).
Limited research has tracked the impact on long-term wellbeing of workplace bullying.
Evidence indicates that early in the career, sexual assault has a long-term effect on depressing symptoms, which can also influence quality of life, connections and professional achievement (Houle et al., 2011). Workers' moral standards, efficiency, absences, turnover and company commitments as well as the employer's external image may also be harm by the impact of harassment on workers (McDonald et al., 2015).
Victims are usually afraid to report these situations, because some women are afraid the consequences, companies are responsible to look for the best outcome or find ways to prevent these situations in the workplace. 98% of organizations have policies which indicate that sexual harassment is not accepted, but many people think their firms are short of implementing policies (Krivkovich et al., 2018).
Learning about what defines sexual harassment and sexual harassment policies in the organization has shown that the likelihood of unwanted sexual behavior like even unwanted touch can be lower. The features and motivations of harassers are little known and thus little is known as to how harassment can be prevented (Hersch et al., 2015).
Managers at all levels must set the tone by not tolerating public sexual abuse and by modeling inclusive conduct. HR teams should be given extensive training so that they can handle everything from hearing sexist jokes to being sexually touched (Krivkovich et al., 2018).
1.2 Enablers
Although women have various barriers in their path, there are enablers who help them achieve their goals. Breaking the "glass ceiling" is a hard job, and several parties need to be involved. Government bodies, workers, academic institutions, and women themselves are all key players in removing obstacles that prevent women from realizing their full potential (Johns, 2013).
1.2.1 Government
Governments play a key role in removing obstacles to women's participation in the labor market, governments should, for example, strengthen childcare facilities, ensure that tax structures do not prohibit women from entering the labor force, and provide a good policy for paid family leave (Desvaux et al., 2017)
The article by McKinsey and company “women matter: ten years of insights on gender diversity” identified ten priorities that account to more than 75% of gender gap. These 10 goals represent both the magnitude and geographical concentration of gender discrimination.
Five of these are global: undermining economic potential, unpaid labor, limited basic rights, lack of representation of politics and violence towards women. These differences exist all over the world, including in developed economies. In addition, there are five geographic impact zones: weak labor force participation in job opportunities; low maternal and reproductive health; unequal levels of education; financial and digital marginalization;
and girl-child vulnerability (Desvaux et al., 2017).
In Europe, tackling inequality is crucial in two areas: European women work more part- time and work more without pay than men (2.1 time more). In India, 68 million more
females are likely to be involved in non-farm work in the next decade. To do this, Indian policymakers, business leaders and leaders in the social sector need to focus coordinated efforts in eight areas:
1. Lowering the barriers to job development 2. Expanded training for women in key areas
3. Low gender disparities in secondary and higher school
4. expanding the scope of financial and digital services for women entrepreneurs 5. enhance policy and practice on gender equity in the private sector
6. Further reinforcement of female laws and enforcement
7. Increasing the facilities and resources for the burden of the routine of homework, treatment, childcare and elderly care
8. Restoring depth views about the role of women in work and the community (Desvaux et al., 2017).
On the other side, several municipalities have implemented successful policies, such as the City of Albuquerque, New Mexico, which allows contractors to report wage disparities between men and women for each work category, which has an effect on their bidding score. Through the Deliver Project, USAID and the Ministry of Health improved supply- chain business practices in Nicaragua to reduce contraceptive stockouts, Brazil enacted the
"Maria da Penha Law", Comprehensive legislation establishing domestic and family abuse specialist courts as well as a network of shelters and Police Stations and reducing the amount of taxation contributed by Canada and the involvement of women in employment has increased (Desvaux et al., 2017).
These are some initiatives that governments have established to motivate women to aspire for more, to feel they are as capable as any men and that nothing can actually stop them on fulfilling their dreams.
1.2.2 Comprehensive Ecosystem
A comprehensive environment is required to form strong work situations for women, counting CEO commitment, close checking of key pointers, programs for women's administration improvement and approaches to neutralize the selecting and advancement
forms, whereas driving profound cultural alter (Desvaux et al., 2017). According to Mckinsey's Women Matter research, there are five components to creating a comprehensive ecosystem that will promote equality and gender diversity at all levels of an organization: CEO and management engagement and management cascade, transparency and indicator monitoring, women's leadership growth, diversity-enabling systems, and inclusive mind-sets and practices (Desvaux et al., 2017).
Before the glass ceiling can be lifted, employers must be constructive in their commitment to gender diversity and equality. Companies that have been effective in overcoming hurdles have initiatives that share the following characteristics:
• They have the approval of the CEO
• They are tailored to the company
• They are inclusive
• They counter preconceptions and prejudices
• They emphasize transparency
• They monitor progress.
It's critical to provide comprehensive, organization-specific initiatives that overcome structural, operational, and cultural barriers. Women need leadership development programs that not only help them improve vital leadership skills, but also help them recognize and exploit their strengths, become more comfortable taking risks, build trust, and provide resources and strategies for overcoming established barriers. Women must build their own social capital by forming support networks, seeking sponsors within their organizations, finding mentors, supporting themselves, and communicating the value they bring to the workplace (Johns, 2013).
(Virick,2012) discovered that having a diversity program in place helped to minimize sexism by providing women with preparation, networking opportunities, and mentoring.
These programs enabled women to work on high-profile projects while also gaining cross- functional experience. When advancement opportunities to top-level positions were open, diversity and succession planning helped to protect women from being ignored.
1.2.3 Men and women participation
As reported in the McKinsey report, many men are still unaware of the difficulties that women face in achieving top management positions. Men's participation is critical so that women can resolve all of the obstacles to get to the top. Progress can only occur when both men and women step up.
This is particularly true of male middle managers, who do not prioritize gender diversity.
According to a 2013 survey, almost one-third of men were unaware that women have a harder time getting to the top than men. As a result, after decades of gender balance being mostly a female problem, it is important that men and women work together for the common good (Desvaux et al., 2017).
Stronger female representation in senior management positions in companies involves intervention on three levels: society, companies, and individual mindsets. Government policies and infrastructure can help to promote change in society, for example, by reforming tax systems to ensure that they do not create disincentives for women to work, or providing childcare or elder care, which are important enablers for women's involvement at work and can help alleviate the double-burden syndrome, particularly when women hold management positions.
They may also influence cultural and social change by implementing educational programs or passing legislation to close income disparities, for example. Corporations must play a role in creating an atmosphere that is both inclusive and respectful of women's advancement. Finally, both men and women have a role to play in shifting mindsets and combating unconscious prejudice at the individual level (Desvaux et al., 2017)
2 Influence of gender on leadership style
Essential elements for leadership are inspiration, vision, human passion, all aspects related to motivation and the driving corporate success (Yukl, 2010).
True equality is achieved when there is no discrimination based on a person's sex in terms of opportunities, resource distribution, or access to services. Gender equality refers to the allocation of advantages and obligations between men and women that is equal and just.
The definition acknowledges that men and women have different needs and strengths, and that these disparities should be recognized and resolved in a way that corrects gender imbalances (European Commission, 2014, p. 47).
People develop a sense of purpose and internalize a leadership identity to become leaders.
It is an iterative method to internalize a self - identity as a leader. An individual demonstrates leadership by taking deliberate action, such as calling a meeting to resurrect a stalled project. Others support or oppose the action, which encourages or discourages further claims. These experiences shape a person's self-image as a leader and convey how others perceive his or her suitability for the role (Ibarra, 2020).
Effective leaders build a sense of mission by following objectives that are aligned with their personal ideals and advance the common good. This allows them to look beyond what is currently feasible and provides them with a valid incentive to take personal risks. Since they are willing to take risks in the pursuit of common goals, such leaders are seen as genuine and trustworthy. By connecting colleagues to a larger cause, they encourage commitment, strengthen determination, and help them find greater meaning in their work (Ibarra, 2020).
Men have been for many years considered the ones to be in a managerial position but over the years, women have taken that position and have managed to make several changes but given that all cultures and ideas are different in some societies, women are considered weak while in other women are considered the perfect leader.
Schein c.s. (Schein, 1973, 1975; Schein, Mueller, & Jacobson, 1989; Brenner, Tomkiewicz
& Schein, 1989) found that effective managers' characteristics are considered to be identical to those of men in most countries. Women who excel in achieving high-status organizational positions could be considered as highly successful, according to research,
because they had to be exceptionally qualified to meet the tougher criteria applied to women (so-called "double standards," Foschi, 2000; Lyness & Heilman, 2006; Rosette &
Tost, 2010; see also Heilman, Martell, & Simon, 1988).
Helgesen (1990) attempted to investigate their managerial actions by repeating Mintzberg's diary report, but this time with women. In 1973, Mintzberg studied the diaries of male managers; in 1990, Helgesen did the same thing for female managers. Women tended to lead from the center rather than the top, had a preference for direct contact, and favored receiving information from those directly involved rather than being transmitted up a chain of command, according to the findings (Helgesen,1990).
In 1990 these characteristics may have been seen as a weakness but nowadays this could easily be a characteristic for a great manager and leader. Numerous clarifications have been advertised for why women have trouble in reaching top administration positions and chief among them is the stereotype-based need of fit between women’s characteristics, abilities and aspirations and those considered essential for successful leadership, gender stereotype-based desires not as it were influence who individuals see as “fitting” the biased idea of a pioneer, but they moreover influence women themselves (Hoyt & Murphy, 2016).
Men and women have different leadership styles, and it all depends on their nature according to (Hoyt & Murphy, 2016) women tend to be warm, communal, supportive, helpful and kind which basically means “women take care” and men are assertive, dominant, authoritative, competent and agentic and in other words “men take charge”.
Agentic characteristics associated with men include aggression, superiority, and assertiveness. According to Madden (2011), people associate these agentic qualities with successful leadership. A company would rather have as a manager a person who “is in a charge” rather than someone who just “takes care” and that is why women tend to be seen as weak, as if they’re not ready or are not emotional stable to deal with unusual situations.
Rao (2019) describes limitations to women’s leading capabilities as a “glass ceiling” made up of phobias and apprehensions. Men and women have different biological characteristics; however, these differences cannot be defined as deficiencies. This just means that their leading styles will be naturally different. Women and men are equal in all spheres; therefore, leadership capabilities are in no way a limitation to either sex.
According to (Ely et al., 2011), masculine words like authoritative, constructive, and powerful are used to describe leadership. This is in contrast to feminine characteristics such as kindness, compassion, and inclusiveness (Ely et al., 2011). Furthermore, (Ely et al.,2011) discovered that women are stereotyped as passive, lacking ambition, or overdramatic.
Hoyt (2010) believes the rise of women leaders and their leadership effectiveness occurs when a diverse set of factors converge. Expectations and perceptions about leadership are often based on a viewpoint that accepts masculinity as the norm; as a result, women who participate in leadership-related roles often face barriers and challenges that men in those same positions do not face (Kaufman,2011).
Moreover, a feminine leadership style is often seen as a vulnerability (Eagly, 2007; Eagly
& Carli, 2003; Garcia- Retamero & Lopez-Zafra, 2009; Jogulu & Wood, 2008; Smith, Matkin, & Fritz, 2004). According to studies, women are perceived to be less successful in more masculine position of leadership (Lopez & Ensari, 2014). An androgynous leadership style, rather than genderizing leadership, could be the most successful in achieving higher organizational performance (Appelbaum, Audet, & Miller, 2003; Billing & Alvesson, 2000; Madsen, 2006). As a result, it may be necessary for all leaders, regardless of gender, to recognize the factors that contribute to effective women's leadership styles (Kaufman, 2011).
According to (Ibarra, 2020), being a leader entails more than just being placed in a leadership position; it also entails learning something new and adapting one's style to the demands of that role. It also entails an identity shift, and organizations are unintentionally undermining this process by advising women to seek leadership roles while also addressing policies and practices that communicate gender inequality.
A large number of studies have compared the leadership styles of women and men, most of these studies have focused on task and interpersonal styles, and smaller numbers have examined autocratic versus democratic style or transformational, transactional, and laissez-
faire styles. Although researchers have used a diversity of methods to assess style, the most common measures have each leader’s colleagues often his or her subordinates rate their leader on items that describe the critical features of the styles that researchers desire to assess (Eagly, 2001).
According to their social context, Eagly and Johnson divided the studies into three types:
(1) experimental tests, which compared the leadership styles of male and female laboratory group leaders; (2) assessment studies, which compared the leadership styles of people who were not selected for leadership roles (e.g., nonmanagerial employees or business students); and (3) organizational studies, which compared the leadership styles of people who were on the same level or role (e.g., elementary school principal). Eagly and Johnson found a significant relation between the social context of the research and the extent to which leadership styles were gender stereotypic (Eagly, 2001).
There are a number of misconceptions concerning women. Women are viewed as incapable of performing such positions in military organizations, as (Rao,2018) points out, but the reality is that they have the same fire and ambition as men, and they stand up for what they believe and act with versatility and adaptability.
Here are some of women's advantages: Women have a lot of ability biologically, and they are caring by nature. They can understand and sympathize with others and are sensitive to others' feelings. They are experts in interpersonal and soft skills, and they can manage stress better than men, who are aggressive by nature (Rao,2018).
On the contrary, women are gentle and well-behaved. Women are also experts in communication's secret data, which is why they can better understand male egos, thoughts, and desires and act on them. Women are strong leaders at home, effectively leading their husbands and children. Women are more responsible at work and have more tenacity, endurance, and determination than men. They have the ability to multitask. They have the courage and toughness to come back from setbacks (2018, Rao). However, they must
unlock their potential by breaking the boundaries and raise their bar, they must avoid looking for approval and validation. They must be prepared to fail and learn lessons from them. Above all, they must be proud of being women (Rao,2018).
Singh et al, 2012) conducted research on how employees perceive good and poor leaders.
Women who led in a masculine manner were regarded as being the worst superiors (Singh et al., 2012). Men ranked men substantially higher in all leadership traits, including the belief that women were their worst superiors and men's top superiors. Women were more likely to see men and women as equal in leadership skills (Pfaff et al., 2013).
When a woman rises to the top of the corporate ladder, she is more competent than men.
Breaking myths is something that we all need to do. Traditional mental and psychological barriers should be broken, and women should take on leadership positions and responsibilities. They will have to work even harder to establish themselves as leaders in this male-dominated society (Rao,2018).
3 Women in male dominated industries
Women working in a male-dominated industry are likely to earn much less their male colleagues and are less likely to advance in their careers (Lopez & Ensari, 2014).
According to Lennon (2013), women perform better than men in many areas, but not promoted to powerful positions. The concept of a job minority, described as working, who is an outsider in their profession, was introduced by Taylor, 2010). Illustrations of work- related minorities incorporate male medical caretakers, female manufacturing plant specialists, male Caretakers and female specialists.
According to this hypothesis, when women succeed in a male-dominated sector, they are more likely to face social backlash (Heilman, Wallen, Fuchs, & Tamkins, 2004). This negative reaction stems from social expectations and assumptions about gender roles, which can lead to bias in workplace assessments of women (Heilman et al., 2004).
In these fields, women seem to have the option of conforming to unpopularity or being regarded as incapable of fulfilling their responsibilities. Men in women-dominated industries face another problem when pushed into higher positions of leadership that are more aligned with the roles of men because peers and subordinates may think that they are breaking social standards (i.e., Director instead of Just teacher) (Taylor ,2010)
According to another study on the gender difference in garnishments, women prefer to remain in professions that are consistent with female gender roles because they gain more than men do in male-dominated occupations (Gabriel & Schmitz, 2006).
If they had a job in a masculine profession, they would most likely earn just two thirds of the wage of men in the same industry (Gabriel & Schmitz, 2006). In spite of the fact that women have a hard time in male dominated industries, does not mean they are afraid to actually pursue their dreams, step back and let men stay in Male dominated industries. This only motivate women to fight and work harder, some examples of male dominated industries that women are still struggling to be part of are sports, politics, engineering, science, technology, and construction.
3.1 Women in Sports
Sport is everywhere in the media, in parks, and in educational institutions, and in many parts of the world, girls and women are participating in sport in record numbers. However, decisions about what happens in sport, including girls’ and women’s access to sport, are still predominantly made by men (Leberman, 2017).
This affects what we see in the media, the amount of coverage afforded female athletes in all forms of media (Bruce, 2016; Cooky, Messner, & Hextrum, 2013), and the amount of prize money and level of salary female athletes receive in sport (Women on Boards, 2016).
Over the past 40 years, the participation in sport of women and girls has grown as a result of both legislative initiatives, including Title IX in the United States, but also national, domestic and international programs, promoting physically active girls and women. This increase in participation, however, was not balanced by a substantial rise in the number of women in positions of power in sports at any level, but particularly nationally and internationally.
Men run 33 of the 35 international federations affiliated with the Olympics. Currently, only two women lead international sport federations: Marisol Casado the International Triathlon Union (ITU) a summer sport federation and Kate Caithness a winter sport federation World Curling. (Leberman, 2017). Other issues affecting women in sport during 2016 included, for example, the US Women’s National Team Soccer pay equity claim (March 31, 2016). The women were paid nearly four times less than the men despite being more prominent, better known and successful and exceeding projected revenues by $16,000,000 (Powell, 2016).
The gender pay gap in sport is only being reduced very slowly. Some sports, however, have taken strategic decisions which are positively impacting women in their sport. For example, women cricketers in both Australia and the United Kingdom are being paid more equitably as a result of increased game attendance, TV coverage, and sponsorship opportunities (Women on Boards, 2016).
Most countries in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) have a deep pipeline of female talent, with more women than men graduating with greater
expertise. But this does not yet mean equity within senior management and management or pay (Leberman, 2017).
Sport is a reflection of wider societal norms and practices operating within both individual nations and globally (Leberman, 2017).
The majority of people in the sports industry believe that job and organizational activities are gender-neutral, which helps to maintain male supremacy in sport leadership (Burton, 2015).
Men control leadership roles in sport organizations in the United States and abroad (Acosta
& Carpenter, 2014; Lapchick, 2015, 2016; International Working Group on Women and Sport, 2014; Smith & Wrynn, 2013), and women hold less than 25% of senior leadership positions in all US professional sports leagues (Lapchick, 2015). The Women's National Basketball Association is the only exception; however, women only hold 33% of managing director positions in that league (Leberman, 2017).
Leadership and good leadership are seen as masculine traits that are better represented by men.As a result, women are seen as lacking the requisite leadership skills, especially in the male-dominated institution of sport. As a result, when women are ready to pursue leadership roles in sport organizations, they are met with resistance.They face inaccurate expectations of their ability to lead, which can be especially harmful because women must overcome assumptions while practicing leadership and/or holding positions of leadership (Leberman, 2017).Sport has traditionally been a male-dominated domain where women’s sports have been marginalized (Coakley, 2014; Schell & Rodriguez, 2000), as sport was created by and for men, and continues to be controlled and dominated by men in many ways (Acosta & Carpenter, 2014; Adriaanse, 2015).
Leberman and Shaw (2015) sought to identify the key attributes or skills women needed to be successful in sport management based on research with female sport management graduates. The results indicated that being able to develop relationships was most important, followed by having strong communication skills, interpersonal skills, planning/organizing skills and having enthusiasm and motivation.
